Researc

h
Methods Click to add text

DR PRAGYA SONAWANE
24TH DECEMBER 2021
EXPECTATION
S
CONSTRUCTIV
E
PARTICIPATIO
N
EXPECTATIONS
EXPECTATIONS
WHY THIS
COURSE?
 Plan for the day
 Process of Enquiry: How we know what we know.
 Errors in Enquiry
 Overview of Research Process; Inductive and Deductive reasoning
 Formulating Research Objectives
 Criteria for good research
 Qualitative Methods
o Essence of qualitative data
o Sampling in qualitative research
o Data collection and Analysis
 Quantitative Methods
o Developing a hypothesis, a research problem
o Reliability and Validity
o Developing a questionnaire
o Data Collection and Analysis
o Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics
 Writing Conclusion
 Bibliography
 How We Know
What We Know
Direct Experience and Observation

Personal Inquiry

Tradition

Authority
 Looking for
Reality
Two Criteria

Logical support - must make sense

Empirical support - must not contradict actual observation

 Humans recognize that future
circumstances are caused by present ones.

Learn that patterns of cause and effect are

probabilistic in nature.

Ordinary Aim to answer both “what” and “why”

questions, and pursue these goals by
Human observing and figuring out.
Inquiry
 Things “Everyone
Knows”
Sources of our secondhand knowledge:
◦ Tradition
◦ Authority

Both provide a starting point for inquiry, but can lead us to start at the wrong point and push us in the
wrong direction.
Inaccurate observations
Errors in Inquiry
 Solutions
Inaccurate observations
◦ Measurement devices guard against inaccurate observations and add a degree of precision.
 ERRORS IN INQUIRY
AND SOLUTIONS
Overgeneralization
 Solutions
Overgeneralization
◦ Commit to a representative sample of observations and repeat a study to make sure the same results are
produced each time.
ERRORS
IN
INQUIRY
Selective observation
 OH
NO!!!
 O
YES!!
Solutions
Selective observation
◦ Make an effort to find “deviant cases” that do not fit into the general pattern.
ERRORS
IN
INQUIRY
Illogical Reasoning
Solutions
Illogical Reasoning
◦ Use systems of logic consciously and
explicitly.
 Foundations of
Social Science
Theory - logic

Data collection - observation

Data Analysis - comparison of what is logically expected with what is actually observed
What is research?
 What is
research?
Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in a
new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and understandings. This could
include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the extent that it leads to new and creative
outcomes

“a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”

Basic Vs Applied
 Basic
Research
The purpose of both basic and applied research is to contribute or develop a body of knowledge. Basic research
is generally not related to a specific problem and its findings cannot be immediately applied.

It is also known as fundamental or pure research and it is a systematic investigation set to achieve a better and
more detailed understanding of a research subject or phenomenon, not to solve a specific problem.
 Applied Research
Applied research directly addresses the problem at hand. In general, applied research is launched by the firm, agency,
or individual facing a specific problem.

Applied research is designed to focus on providing practical solutions to a specific problem. It is a form of
investigation that entails solution-oriented inquiries into a phenomenon, a field of study or research subject
generally employing empirical methodologies.

Basic research is a development or contribution to the theory where the findings are used directly or immediately.
Whereas, applied research is organized to address a specific problem and its findings are immediately applied by the
decision maker based on their feasibility and sustainability.
Examples of basic research in education include:
How does the human memory work?
How do children acquire new languages?
Examples of applied research in education include:
A study to build students' interests in religious studies.
A study to improve classroom interaction between teachers and
students.
Examples of basic research in psychology include:
How do panic attacks happen?
What are the symptoms of anxiety disorders?
Examples of applied research in psychology include:
What are the treatment options for anxiety disorders?
What are the ways to improve employees' productivity in the
workplace?
 Consider the hypothetical example of a multinational
company engaged in the manufacturing and selling of
toothpaste. The company has got a big client base and has
almost 100 million customers in rural and urban India.
The company is enjoying a sound market position and
willing to enhance the client base by 10 million
customers in the next 2 years. After 1 year of fixing this
target, the company assessed its performance. An
estimation revealed that, instead of enhancing, the client
base of the company is surprisingly reduced to
approximately 95 million customers. The company
management is worried and wants to ascertain where the
actual problem lies. Superficially, the problem seems to
be the loss of customers and it has to be elaborated and
Case Example 1 properly addressed.
100 million customers; the problem and solution can be explored by contacting these customers in a
pre-specified and systematic manner

How will you get information from customers?

How will the final decision be taken?

Defining the problem properly is not an easy task. A researcher has to launch a pilot study or an exploratory research to
have an insight of the problem.

He/she has to select an appropriate research design and should also focus on developing or adopting a tool
(questionnaire) to address the problem.

Obviously, the researcher cannot contact all the customers. He has to determine a sample size and suitable sampling
techniques to cater to the diverse population of rural and urban India in an optimum manner.

Administering the questionnaire to the respondents and executing the related fieldwork is another concern of the
researcher.

Data coding and data preparation is the next step before launching statistical analysis. As the next step, an appropriate
statistical test must be used and the obtained statistical result must be properly interpreted.

This obtained information must be conveyed to the decision maker and it is the decision maker who actually takes the
final decision.
Business
Research
Process
Design
Inductive research approach
When there is little to no existing literature on a topic, it is
common to perform inductive research because there is no
theory to test. The inductive approach consists of three
stages:

1.Observation
1. A low-cost airline flight is delayed
2. Dogs A and B have fleas
3. Elephants depend on water to exist

2.Observe a pattern
1. Another 20 flights from low-cost airlines are delayed
2. All observed dogs have fleas
3. All observed animals depend on water to exist

3.Develop a theory
1. Low cost airlines always have delays
2. All dogs have fleas
Testable statements
If and then statements
Null Hypothesis: Ho(negative
statement)
Alternate Hypothesis: Ha
If you water the plant, then it will grow.
Ho- There is no impact of water on the
growth of plant
Ha- There is an impact of water on the
growth of plant
 When conducting deductive research, you always start with a theory (the result of
inductive research). Reasoning deductively means testing these theories. If there is
no theory yet, you cannot conduct deductive research.

The deductive research approach consists of four stages:

1.Start with an existing theory

1. Low cost airlines always have delays
2. All dogs have fleas
3. All biological life depends on water to exist

2.Formulate a hypothesis based on existing theory

1. If passengers fly with a low cost airline, then they will always experience
delays
2. All pet dogs in my apartment building have fleas
3. All land mammals depend on water to exist

3.Collect data to test the hypothesis

1. Collect flight data of low-cost airlines
Deductive research 2. Test all dogs in the building for fleas
approach 3. Study all land mammal species to see if they depend on water

4.Analyse the results: does the data reject or support the hypothesis?
1. 5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed = reject hypothesis
2. 10 out of 20 dogs didn’t have fleas = reject hypothesis
RECAP
RECAP
Exploration
Description
Explanation
EXPLORATION
 •A study into the role of social networking sites

A study into the role of social networking sites

as an effective marketing communication
channel
•An investigation into the ways of improvement
of quality of customer services

An investigation into the ways of improvement

of quality of customer services within
hospitality sector in London
•An assessment of the role of corporate social
responsibility

An assessment of the role of corporate social

Exploratory responsibility on consumer behaviour in
Research pharmaceutical industry in the USA
DESCRIPTIO
N
 ‘

What are the most effective intangible employee motivation

tools?

What are the most effective intangible employee motivation

tools in hospitality industry in the 21stcentury?
• What is the impact of viral marketing?

What is the impact of viral marketing on consumer behaviour

in consumer amongst university students in Canada?
• What are the main distinctive traits of organisational culture?

What are the main distinctive traits of organisational culture of

McDonald’s USA?
• What is the impact of the Covid 2019?
Descriptive
research • What is the impact of the Covid 2019 on fitness industry in the
UK?
EXPLANATIO
N
Explanatory Research

To identify the nature of impact of work process re-engineering

To identify the nature of impact of work process re-engineering on the levels of employee motivation

‘Will consumers buy more products?’

‘Will consumers buy more products in a blue package?’

What is the difference in the number of landline telephone calls made between Millennial
adults and older people?

‘Which of two advertising campaigns will be more effective?’

Criteria for good
research
The purpose of the research should be well defined
and the methodologies that we intend to follow
should be clearly stated
Criteria for good
research
A systematic research, which is well structured and
sequentially arranged, will provide more ease to
research works
Criteria for good
research
There needs to be a logical reasoning or process of
induction/deduction involved while representing the
work. The ideas need to be fully supported by well-
formed hypothesis or theories.
Criteria for good
research
The conclusions obtained from the research
should be substantiated by valid proofs and the
results should be reproducible.
 Criteria for good
research
• A systematic, logical,
replicable research work
can be considered as a
quality work.
Criteria for good
research
The Research needs to follow the accepted
standards of academic writing
QUANTITATIV
E AND
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Quantitative research
Quantitative research is generally associated with the collection and conversion of data into numerical
form to make statistical calculations from which generalized/specified conclusions are drawn to
formulate hypothesis.

The main emphasis of quantitative research is on deductive reasoning that tends to move from the
general to the specific and is also known as top-down approach.

The validity of the hypothesis is proved by combining one or more valid observations or rules.
 It fails to take account of people’s unique ability to
interpret their experiences, construct their own meanings
and act on these. It leads to assumption that facts are true
and same for all people any time.

Quantitative research often produces binary and trivial

findings of little consequence due to the restriction on and
the controlling of variables.

It is not totally objective because the researcher is

subjectively involved in the very choice of a problem as
worthy of investigation and in the interpretation of the
results.

Limitations
 Qualitative research is about recording, analyzing and
understanding the deeper meaning and significance of the
revealable variables. The research approach adopted is an
inductive method, wherein the researchers develop a
theory or look for a pattern on the basis of the data
that he/she has collected. It involves a strategic and
conventional move from specific to general and is
sometimes called the bottom-up approach

There is no pre-determined hypothesis; they will be

guided by a set of rules/theories, which provide them the
framework to investigate more on the required axis.

The data is collected through observations, interviews

Qualitative
and through focus groups.
research
Limitations

The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective nature
of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of
reliability and validity.

Contexts, situations, events, conditions and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent nor any
kind of generalizations can be made to a wider context than the one studied with any confidence.

The time required for data collection, analysis and interpretation is lengthy.

Researcher’s presence has a profound effect on the subjects of study.

 Data is subjective, systematic
How does
the Data Describes life experiences and gives them meaning

in Data in qualitative research are typically words versus

numbers in quantitative research
Qualitativ
Focus on the whole, holistic
e research
look Data incorporate perceptions and beliefs of researcher
and participants

different?
Qualitative Research Purpose

DESCRIBE UNDERSTA EXPLAIN IDENTIFY DEVELOP GENERATE

ND
 Multiple realities

Natural setting for data collection

Researchers and participants interact

Qualitativ Results are rich descriptions

e Research
Methods
Stretch
and Bio
break
LET’S BE BACK IN
S E V E N MI N U T E S . .

72
Process of Enquiry: How we
know what we know.
Errors in Enquiry
Overview of Research Process;
Inductive and Deductive
reasoning
Formulating Research
Objectives
Criteria for good research
Purpose of Research
Qualitative and Quantitative
DEFINING
THE
RESEARC
H
PROBLEM
 In simple words, we can say that research problem
defines the destination before starting the journey. It
specifies, what to do, how to do, where to do and what
the outcomes are. Thus, without a properly defined
problem, the research cannot progress.

Formulation of research problem is not just finding a

topic within our interest. It is the remodelling, reshaping
or even reconstruction of facts, theories or hypothesis.
The problem thus formulated should also be compact for
PROBLEM data collection and analysis.
DEFINITION AND
FORMULATION
The five W’s
What is my research?

Why do I want to do this research?

Who are my research participants?

Where am I going to do the research?

When am I going to do the research?

 You need to conduct a research to study
the consumption of alcohol among
school children. One of the major causes
of this is the easy availability of the
product. The students also come from a
rich background and have ample money
with them to consume this.

Test Question
Research Problem

Alcohol consumption among school children.

Research question

Will the price hike cause lower consumption of alcohol among school children?

Hypothesis

If there is an increase in tax of alcohol, then the consumption will be reduced.

Theory formulation

Increase in price may reduce the demand

FEASIBILIT
Y CHECK
LIST
Literature means writings, and a body of literature
refers to all the published writings in a particular
style on a particular subject. In research, a body of
literature is a collection of published information
and data relevant to a research question.

Review of literature always help you to increase

your knowledge of your topic, identify important
authors and works in your area of research, identify
new researches, theories and/or methodologies in
your area of research.
GAP IN LITERATURE
 A gap in the literature is a research question relevant to a
given domain that has not been answered at all or adequately
in existing peer-reviewed scholarship. A gap in the literature
may emerge if,

The question has not been addressed in a given domain,

although it may have been answered in a similar or related
area.

The question has never been asked before, but it now merits
exploration due to changes in accepted theory, data collection
technology or culture.

The question has been asked and tested in peer-reviewed

research, but the methods were either of questionable validity
or had necessitated limited applicability of results.
Alternatively, a replication study could be run to verify a
Gap in Literature published study’s results if appropriate.
 Conceptual Map
A concept map is a diagram or
graphical tool that visually represents
relationships between concepts and
ideas. Most concept maps depict ideas
as boxes or circles (also called nodes),
which are structured hierarchically and
connected with lines or arrows (also
called arcs). These lines are labeled
with linking words and phrases to help
explain the connections between
Example 2
To explore the link between job satisfaction and organisational
performance
 METHODS OF CONDUCTING
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
Secondary Data Analysis
Secondary data already exist in the environment and are mainly collected for some other purposes. The
researchers generally use the secondary data to understand the problem and explore the dimensions of
the problem.

The secondary data are not only used for problem understanding and exploration but are also used to
develop an understanding about the research findings.
Expert Survey

To get the authentic information about the problem, the researchers sometimes consult the experts of
the concerned field. These experts provide authentic and relevant information useful for the research,
which otherwise is difficult to obtain.

For example, an automobile company would like to penetrate in the rural market segment and would
like to understand the requirements of the potential rural customers. How to collect exploratory data?

Rural customers, dealers, and retailers

Focus Group Interviews

Focus groups are widely used in the investigation of applied-research problems and are
recognized as distinct research methods.

In a focus group, a small number of individuals are brought together in a room to sit and talk
about some topic of interest to the focus group sponsor.

In fact, the focus group interview is a qualitative research technique in which a trained
moderator leads a small group of participants to an unstructured discussion about the topic of
interest. It generally involves 8 to 12 individuals who discuss a particular topic under the direction
of a moderator, who promotes the interaction and guides the discussion on the topic of interest.
 which is rare in a survey. In addition, a careful examination of their facial expressions and
voice modulation gives an opportunity to read the respondents’ feelings apart from words.

 In an individual interview, some of the thoughts or ideas can be dropped out, whereas in a
focus group, there is a possibility to explore most of the ideas. If one participant will not be
able to present an idea, it will be presented by another participant. In this manner, all the
important dimensions of the problem are properly addressed.

 An unstructured discussion provides flexibility to the focus group interview technique. The
moderator can lead the discussion to the desired direction.

 The presence of many participants really triggers the discussion. A careful selection of
participants can lead to some fruitful information.

 The focus group has the biggest advantage in terms of spontaneous responses by the
participants. The participants respond to a topic in a natural manner and flow of
communication also follows a natural sequence.

 An experienced and effective moderator can control the discussion and generate the relevant
information. The effective and required intervention by the moderator results in a
channelized discussion in the focus group research.
Advantages of
FGD  Interaction among the group members is an added advantage of the focus groups. Mutual
exchange of thoughts stimulates every participant to express their views freely.

 The focus group can generate information fast. Its execution is also fast.
 Limitations

The first drawback of the focus group interview technique is the scientific validity of the findings. The findings are
exploratory and qualitative in nature and need to be strengthened by conducting further structured research. Moreover,
the statistical validity of the procedure is also under serious doubt as the participant group is small and may not be a true
representative of the population.

The second limitation of the focus group research is the bias because of the moderator and the participants. As the
direction and mode of the discussion are based on the moderator, providing a biased approach cannot be easily ruled out
by the moderator. The participants who can talk and express well can also divert the real findings of the focus group. One
or two individuals dominating in conversation can really distract the discussion. In addition, the analysis is subjective in
nature; hence, the findings cannot be cross validated.

The third drawback of the focus group research lies in its important outcome as findings. No doubt, the focus group
presents important information but these are not conclusive. As a matter of drawback of the focus group research, some
managers treat the information as conclusive without taking the pain of launching a conclusive research.
Depth Interviews
A depth interview is a probing between a highly
skilled interviewer and a respondent from the target
population to unfold the underlying opinions,
motivations, emotions, or feelings of an individual
respondent, on a topic generally coined by the
researcher.
Advantages
The depth interviews are especially advantageous when the research topic is sensitive or
personal for a respondent. In this type of situation, the respondent always feels comfortable
answering the questions from one interviewer rather than from a group.

One-on-one interviews give greater flexibility to both the respondent and the interviewer.
Much revealing and authentic information can be obtained from the depth interview.

Personal interviews are easily scheduled when compared with the group interviews. Hence, the
depth interviews can be arranged much conveniently compared with the focus group
interviews.

The depth interviews can handle some complex topics well, as it is personal in nature.
Limitations
Success of the depth interview is completely based on the skill of an interviewer. Searching a skilful and an experienced
interviewer is not an easy task.

Probing by the interviewer can sometimes put the respondent in an uncomfortable situation. The respondent may develop a
feeling of being trapped in the situation and may become non-cooperative.

Continuous interviewing sometimes generates monotony and boredom for the interviewer, which ultimately dilutes the
quality of the gathered information.

Like any other exploratory research technique, the analysis and interpretation of the data are difficult exercises. The
reliability of the obtained data is also under serious doubt because there is lack of consistency in conducting the interview
in terms of the approach adopted by the interviewer. The depth interviews also lack statistical validity.
 Case Analysis

A case study research method actually combines the record analysis and observations from
individual and group interviews. The case studies become particularly useful when one needs to
understand some particular problem or situation in great depth and when one can identify the cases
rich in information.

The case studies are mainly used for the exploration, classification, and hypothesis development
stage of the research process. The case study research methodology generally deals with some
contemporary issues and is conducted to explore the “why” and the “how” of a research
phenomenon.
The case studies are mainly used for the exploration, classification, and hypothesis development stage
of the research process. The case study research methodology generally deals with some contemporary
issues and is conducted to explore the “why” and the “how” of a research phenomenon.

The major advantage of the case research is its appropriateness to research, an area where few studies
have been carried out. The case studies are being conducted to address a real problem; hence, it really
provides a sound knowledge base to the existing body of knowledge.

Weakness of the case study research includes difficulties in generalizing research result and the
subjectivity of the data collection and analysis process. In addition, the case analysis is time consuming
and requires expert interviewers.
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
Projective Techniques

Projective technique is achieved by presenting the respondents with ambiguous verbal or visual
stimulus materials, such as bubble cartoons, which they need to make sense of by drawing from their
own experiences, thoughts, feelings, and imagination before they can offer a response.

The projective technique is used to generate the information when the researcher believes that the
respondent will or cannot reveal the desired meaningful information by direct questioning.
 METHODS OF CONDUCTING
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
 45 and 90

What can the two numbers represent?

Weight

Class Rank

Serial Order
Numbers convey different meanings that are always case specific.

Therefore, there is a need to understand the concept of scale of

measurement to use an appropriate statistical tool and technique, based
on different scales of measurement
 Scales of Measurement
Scales
Scales of
of measurement
measurement include:
include:
Nominal Interval
Ordinal Ratio

The
The scale
scale determines
determines the the amount
amount of
of information
information
contained
contained in
in the
the data.
data.

The
The scale
scale indicates
indicates the
the data
data summarization
summarization and
and
statistical
statistical analyses
analyses that
that are
are most
most appropriate.
appropriate.
Nominal Scale

If data are labels or names used to identify the attribute of an element, then the nominal scale is
used. For example, assume that a marketing research company wants to conduct a survey in three
emirates of UAE: RAK, Dubai, Sharjah. While compiling the data, the company assigns the Numeric
Code “1” to RAK, “2” to Dubai, and “3” to Sharjah. In this case, 1, 2, and 3 are the labels used to
identify the three different emirates.
•Gender

•Political preferences

•Place of residence
 Ordinal Scale

The ordinal scale can be used to rank or order objects.

For example, a manufacturing company administers a questionnaire to 150 consumers to obtain the consumer perception for one
of its products. Each consumer is asked to judge between three given options: excellent, good, or poor. Clearly, excellent is ranked
the best and poor the worst, with good ranked between the two. If we want to assign numeric values to these three attributes, “1”
can be used for excellent, “2” for good, and “3” for poor. In most cases, when we apply statistical tools and techniques, for the
sake of interpretation convenience, rankings are set in reverse. In this case, “1” will be used for poor, “2” for good, and “3” for
excellent. Therefore, the lowest number has the lowest ranking and the highest number the highest ranking.

Status at workplace

tournament team rankings,

order of product quality, and

order of agreement or satisfaction

Interval Scale

In the interval level measurement, the difference between the two consecutive numbers is
meaningful. The interval data are always numeric. For example, three students of M.Sc. Statistics
have scored 65, 75, and 85 in the subject reliability theory. These three students can be rated in terms
of their performances
In the above example, we can also compute that between the highest and the lowest ranking points,
the difference is 20 marks.

•What is your family income?

•What is the temperature in your city?

 Ratio Scale

Ratio level measurements possess all the properties of interval data with meaningful ratio of two values. The ratio scale must contain a zero value that indicates
that nothing exists for the variable at zero point.

For example, a company markets two toothbrushes priced AED 30 and AED 15, respectively. In the ratio scale, the difference between the two prices, that is, AED
30 − AED 15 = AED 15, can be calculated and is meaningful. With it, we can also say that the price of the first product, AED 30, is two times that of the second
product.

• What is your daughter’s current height?

• Less than 5 feet.
• 5 feet 1 inch – 5 feet 5 inches
• 5 feet 6 inches- 6 feet
• More than 6 feet

• What is your weight in kilograms?

• Less than 50 kilograms
• 51- 70 kilograms
• 71- 90 kilograms
• 91-110 kilograms
Offers: Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
The sequence of variables is established – Yes Yes Yes
Mode Yes Yes Yes Yes
Median – Yes Yes Yes
Mean – – Yes Yes
Difference between variables can be evaluated – – Yes Yes
Addition and Subtraction of variables – – Yes Yes
Multiplication and Division of variables – – – Yes
Absolute zero – – – Yes

Comparison
A comparison between the
four levels of data
measurement in terms of
usage potential
In terms of measurement
capacity, nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio level data
are placed in an ascending
order. This means that the
nominal data are the weakest
and the ratio data are the
strongest in terms of
applicability in different
statistical tests.
 The Hierarchy of Levels

Nominal
The Hierarchy of Levels

Nominal Attributes are only named; weakest

The Hierarchy of Levels

Ordinal

Nominal Attributes are only named; weakest

The Hierarchy of Levels

Ordinal Attributes can be ordered

Nominal Attributes are only named; weakest

The Hierarchy of Levels

Interval
Ordinal Attributes can be ordered

Nominal Attributes are only named; weakest

The Hierarchy of Levels

Interval Distance is meaningful

Ordinal Attributes can be ordered

Nominal Attributes are only named; weakest

The Hierarchy of Levels

Ratio
Interval Distance is meaningful

Ordinal Attributes can be ordered

Nominal Attributes are only named; weakest

The Hierarchy of Levels

Ratio Absolute zero

Interval Distance is meaningful

Ordinal Attributes can be ordered

Nominal Attributes are only named; weakest

 Scales of Measurement

Data

Qualitative Quantitative

Numerical
Numerical Nonnumerical
Nonnumerical Numerical
Numerical

Nominal
Nominal Ordinal
Ordinal Nominal
Nominal Ordinal
Ordinal Interval
Interval Ratio
Ratio
 LET’S
MEET
AT
2.00PM

123
In the previous
section..
Research Problem- answer the five Ws

Literature Review

Developing a conceptual map

Methods of doing exploratory research

Scales of Measurement
 Random and
Systematic Error
Random Error
1) fluctuations in the person’s current mood.
2) misreading or misunderstanding the questions
3) measurement of the individuals on different days or in different
places.
These error may cancel out as you collect many samples
Systematic Error
Sources of error including the style of measurement, tendency
toward self-promotion, cooperative reporting, and other
conceptual variables are being measured.
 THE
CRITERIA
FOR GOOD
MEASUREMEN
T
Validity, Reliability, and
Sensitivity
Reliability

THE DEGREE TO WHICH MEASURES ARE FREE FROM RANDOM

ERROR AND THEREFORE YIELD CONSISTENT RESULTS
Reliability– measured through Cronbach Alpha

R E L IA B IL ITY

S T A B IL ITY IN T E R N A L C O N S IS T E N C Y

TEST RETEST E Q U IV A L E N T F O R M S S P L IT T IN G H A L V E S
Validity

THE ABILITY OF A SCALE TO MEASURE

WHAT WAS INTENDED TO BE MEASURED
Validity

V alid ity

F A C E O R C O N TE N T C R ITE R IO N V A L ID ITY C O N S TR U C T V A L ID ITY

CONCURRENT P R E D IC TIV E
 SENSITIVITY
A measurement instrument’s ability to accurately measure
variability in stimuli or responses.
 Sensitivity
Sensitivity is the ability of a measuring instrument to measure the meaningful
difference in the responses obtained from the subjects included in the study. It is
to be noted that the dichotomous categories of response such as yes or no can
generate a great deal or variability in the responses. Hence, a scale with many
items as a sensitive measure is required.
For example, a scale based on five categories of responses, such as “strongly
disagree,” “disagree,” “neither agree nor disagree,” “agree,” and “strongly
agree,” presents a more sensitive measuring instrument. To enhance the
sensitivity of the measuring instrument, a single-question scale must be avoided
and a researcher’s focus should be on including more relevant items or
questions.
 How Do You Improve the Reliability and Validity of
Your Measured Variables?

Conduct a pilot test, trying out a questionnaire or other research instruments on a small group

Use multiple measures.

Ensure variability that there is in your measures.

Write good items

Get your respondents to take your questions seriously.

Make your items nonreactive

Be certain to consider face and content validity by choosing reasonable terms and that cover a broad range of
issues reflecting the conceptual variables..

Use existing measures

 How motivated is a consumer to buy a
particular luxury car?
 Strongly motivated 5,Motivated 4, Neutral 3, Not
motivated 2, Not at all motivated 1
Compare consumer ranks for a luxury car in the light of
other brands of luxury cars available in the market.
Tesla--1

Audi--2

BMW--3

Land Rover--4
In another way of measurement, the researcher will simply ask a
question that will you be purchasing a luxury car produced by
Company X, say “Yes” or “No.” Answers yes and no are coded as
1 and 2, respectively.
Tesla—1/2

Audi—1/2

BMW—1/2

Land Rover—1/2
The quality of the research always depends on the
fact that what measurement techniques are adopted
by the researcher and how these fit in the
prevailing research circumstances.

Scientific research always demands “precision.”

Precise measurement in business research requires

a careful conceptual definition, an operational
definition, and a system of consistent rules for
assigning scores and numbers
Single-Item Scales

As clear from the name, the single-item scales measure only

one item as a construct. Some of the commonly used single-
item scales in the field of business research are multiple-
choice scales, forced-ranking scales, paired-comparison
scales, constant-sum scales, direct quantification scales, and
Q-sort scales.
Multiple-choice scale

In every business research, the researchers are

interested in collecting some demographic or
other information that is nominal in nature. In
short, the researcher tries to generate some
basic information to conduct his or her
research work, and for the sake of convenience
or further analysis, he or she codes it by
assigning different numbers to different
characteristics of interest. This type of
measurement is commonly referred
as multiple-choice scale and results in
generating the nominal data.
Forced-choice ranking

In the forced-choice
ranking scaling technique, the
respondents rank different
objects simultaneously from a
list of objects presented to them
Paired-comparison scaling

As the name indicates, in

the paired-comparison
scaling technique, a respondent
is presented a pair of objects or
stimulus or brands and the
respondent is supposed to
provide his or her preference of
the object from a pair.
Multi-item scaling
Multi-item scaling techniques generally generate some interval type
of information. In interval scaling technique, a scale is constructed
with the number or description associated with each scale position.
Therefore, the respondent’s rating on certain characteristics of interest
is obtained. For the majority of researchers, the rating scales are the
preferred measuring device to obtain interval (or quasi-interval) data
on the personal characteristics (i.e., attitude, preference, and
opinions) of the individuals of all kind
Summated Scaling Technique: The Likert Scales

The Likert scale is developed by Rensis Likert and is a most

common scaling technique in the field of business research. In
a Likert scale, each item response has five rating categories,
“strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” as two extremes with
“disagree,” “neither agree nor disagree,” and “agree” in the middle
of the scale. Typically, a 1- to 5-point rating scale is used, but few
researchers also use another set of numbers such as −2, −1, 0, +1,
and +2
Questionnaire
A questionnaire consists of formalized and pre-
specified set of questions designed to obtain
responses from potential respondents.
Multi-item scale (E-S-QUAL) to
measure the service quality delivered by
Websites in which online shopping is
available for the customers
Source: Parasuraman, A., V. A.
Zeithaml and A. Malhotra (2005). “E-
SQUAL: A Multi-Item Scale for
Assessing Electronic Service
Quality”, Journal of Service Research,
7(10): 1–21.
 Unstructured Versus Structured Questions

Open ended
The open-ended questions provide a free-to-answer opportunity to the respondents instead
of fixed-response choices. In an open-ended question, a respondent remains free to provide
his or her opinion about any topic in his or her own words. While narrating an opinion or
attitude, the respondent provides a deep insight about the phenomenon under study. This
really helps a researcher to design a questionnaire in a more structured manner. Hence, the
open-ended questions are extremely useful for an exploratory research.
Answers to the open-ended questions require a careful interpretation. In any case, it is very
difficult to have a subjective interpretation without human bias. Open-ended questions have
the tendency to provide an extra importance to the respondents who are more expressive.
 closed ended
The closed-ended questions provide response alternative to the respondents instead of
giving them a free-to-express response option. The choice offered to the respondents can
be either in the form of a rating system or a set of response alternatives. These response
alternatives are presented to the respondents and they select the most appropriate one. The
closed-ended questionnaires are generally cheaper, more reliable, and faster to code, and
analyse the collected data.
As the question is already structured, the interpretation bias is also reduced, which
ultimately saves time and cost. Coding and tabulation of data also become very easy as the
response alternatives are fixed and the researcher has no burden to create categories from
a wide range of different narratives provided by the different respondents.
 Dichotomous questions
Dichotomous questions have only two response alternatives usually presenting the two
extremes “yes” or “no.” To make the alternatives balanced, the researchers often present a
third neutral alternative “don’t know.”
1. Please specify your gender.
Male ___________Female _________
2. Is it an attractive policy with special features for kids?
Yes ________No ________Cannot say ___________
3. Will you be purchasing this policy this year?
Yes ________No ________Cannot say ___________
4. Do you have any other policy related to children?
Yes ________No ________Cannot say ___________
 Multiple-Choice Questions
While asking multiple-choice questions, the researcher presents
various answer choices to a respondent and the respondent is
supposed to select any one from the options. The multiple-choice
questions are also referred as multichotomous questions.
1. How do you rate the services offered by the bank?
Excellent ________Very good _______Moderate _______Just right _______Poor ____________
2. How much are you planning to spend in a “fixed deposit scheme” this year?
Less than Rs. 20,000 Rs 20,001 to Rs 40,000 Rs 40,001 to Rs 60,000 Rs 60,001 to Rs 80,000 Rs 80,0001
to Rs 1,00,000
3. For what time period will you be investing in a “fixed deposit scheme”?
Less than 1 year 1 year to 2 years 2 years to 3 years 3 years to 4 years 4 years to 5 years
While preparing a questionnaire, the researcher must always be careful as the respondent may be a common person
who will not be able to understand the technical language.
What is your perception about the new advertisement campaign?
A researcher should frame the same question as:
What is your view about the new advertisement campaign?

Vague or Ambiguous Words Must be Avoided

Some words such as “often,” “occasionally” and “usually,” “how
long,” “how much,” and “reasonably well” may be confusing for a
respondent because these words specify a specific time frame
In a year, how much will you spend on shopping?
Very much
Much
Reasonably well
Less
Very less
In a year, how much do you plan to spend on shopping?
Less than 10,000
Less than 20,000
Less than 30,000
Less than 40,000
 Double-Barrelled Questions Must be Avoided

Double-barrelled questions are those with wordings such as “and” or

“or.” In a double-barrelled question, a respondent may agree to one part
of the question but not to the other part.
On weekends, would you prefer an outing with your family and
which is your favorite outing spot in the town?
Que 1: On weekends, would you prefer an outing with your family?
Que 2: If yes, then which is your favourite outing spot in the town?
 Avoid Leading and Loaded Questions

A leading question is the one which clearly reveals the researcher’s

opinion about the answer to the question. This is a biased way of
presenting a question to get the desired answer.
Aren’t you satisfied with the new feature of the product?
The loaded questions are posed to address the inner feeling of the
respondent and the response is almost predestinated. For example, a
loaded question can be given as follows:
Every patriotic Indian will prefer an Indian brand of soap.
 Overstatement of words will always bias the individual response. For example, a question
related to the purchase of a water purifier with overstatement of words is as follows:
A survey revealed that hepatitis cases are increasing in India due to dirty water drinking.
Have you any intentions to purchase a water purifier in the coming 6 months?

Respondent’s Memory Should Not be Overtaxed

In some situations, a researcher’s questions are based on the respondent’s memory. The
respondents tend to forget the incidents that are not important for them. These incidents may
be important for the researcher, and he or she has framed question on these incidents.
In the past two months, how many times you have eaten ice cream of Brand “X” with
your family?
How many times you enjoyed ice cream parties with your family in past 2 months?
Respondent’s Ability to Answer Must be Considered

Questions must be designed in the light of the respondent’s

ability and experience. For example, a question targeted to
officers older than 75 years to assess the importance of
Internet banking is as follows:
Do you feel that Internet banking is an added advantage
for bank customers?
Logical Order of Questioning
In a questionnaire, the questions must flow in a logical sequence. There are at least three approaches to suggest
the roadmap to place the questions in a logical sequence; they are funnel technique, work technique, and
sections technique.

Funnel technique suggests asking general questions first and then the specific questions. The general
questions allow an interviewer to have knowledge about the respondent’s understanding and opinion about the
subject matter to be investigated.

Work technique suggests that difficult-to-answer, sensitive, or complicated questions should be placed later in
the questionnaire. Researchers generally place the scaled questions in this category as the respondent has to put
much effort to answer these questions compared with simple questions.

The third technique is the section technique in which questions are placed in different sections with respect to
some common base.
 DATA
COLLECTIO
N
Stages of Data Analysis
EDITING

CODING
ERROR
CHECKING
AND
DATA ENTRY VERIFICATION

DATA ANALYSIS
DATA ANALYSIS
Coding

The process of identifying and assigning a numerical score or other

character symbol to previously edited data
OVER
TO MS
EXCEL
Data Analysis
Descriptive Statistics
◦ Mean, median, mode, standard deviation, skewness, percentages
◦ Part of it is done by google forms

Inferential Statistics

Testing of hypothesis-rejection or acceptance

Correlation, regression, chi square test, t test etc

Hypothesis:

Display of website impacts the customer satisfaction

Null Hypothesis: Ho: There is no impact of display on customer satisfaction

Alternate hypothesis: Ha: There is an impact of display on customer satisfaction

Communicating
Results
 Report parts

Prefatory parts Main body of the report Appended parts

 Prefatory parts

Title page Summary

Objectives
Letter of
transmittal Results

Letter of
Conclusions
authorization

Table of contents Recommendations

 Main body of the report

Introduction Results Limitations

Area 1
Conclusions and
Methodology
Area 2 recommendations

Final area
 Appended parts

Data collection
forms

Detailed
calculations

General tables

Bibliography
Bibliography and References
SBS cites using the American Psychological Association (APA) format. This section is a short
summary of citation and referencing techniques. When in doubt, consult the Publication Manual of
the American Psychological Association, 7th ed.

Reference citations in the text.

In principle, citations are embedded in the text and show up to three bits of information:

The author’s surname(family name).

The year of publication (latest edition).

Page numbers (for quotes and specific facts or statements)

 Did we follow the plan??
 Process of Enquiry: How we know what we know.
 Errors in Enquiry
 Overview of Research Process; Inductive and Deductive reasoning
 Formulating Research Objectives: Exploratory, Descriptive ,
Explanatory
 Criteria for good research
 Qualitative Methods
o Essence of qualitative data
o Sampling in qualitative research
o Data collection and Analysis
 Quantitative Methods
o Developing a hypothesis, a research problem
o Reliability and Validity
o Developing a questionnaire
o Data Collection and Analysis
o Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics
 Writing Conclusion
How
willing
are you??
THANKS A TON!