The Intel Microprocessors

8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286,

80386, 80486, Pentium, Pentium Pro Processor,
Pentium Ⅱ, Pentium Ⅲ, Pentium 4
Architecture, Programming,
and Interfacing - 6 Ed. -
Barry B. Brey
 Chapter
1. Introduction to the Microprocessor & Computer
history, operation, methods used to store data in  based system
2. The Microprocessor and its Architecture
programming model
3. Addressing Modes 4. Data Movement Instructions
5. Arithmetic and Logic Instructions
6. Program Control Instructions
7. Programming the Microprocessor
application using assembler program
8. Using Assembly Languages
use of C/C++ with in-line assembler
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 2
 Chapter 1
Introduction to the Microprocessor and
Computer
 Introduction
Overview of the Intel family Microprocessors
History of computers
Function of the microprocessor
Terms and Jargon – computerese
Microprocessor-based Personal Computer system
Block diagram and description of function of each block
How the memory and I/O system of PC function
The way that data are stored in the memory
Numeric data : integers, floating-point, BCD
Alphanumeric : ASCII

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 4

 Chapter Objective
1. computer terminology such as bit, byte, , data, real memory
system, EMS, XMS, DOS, BIOS, I/O, and so forth
2. briefly detail the history of computers
3. overview of various 80X86, Pentium-Pentium 4 family
4. block diagram of computer system and its function
5. function of microprocessor and its basic operation
6. define contents of memory system in PC
7. convert between binary, decimal, and hexadecimal numbers
8. differentiate and represent numeric and alphabetic
information as integer, floating-point, BCD, and ASCII data

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 5

 1-1 A historical Background
The mechanical age
abacus : 500 B.C.
calculator(with gears and wheels) : Pascal
The Electrical age
Hollerith machine(1889):12-bit code on punched card
ENIAC(Electronics Numerical Integrator and Calculator) :
1946, Moore school of EE at Univ. of Pennsylvania
first general-purpose, programmable electronic computer
17,000 vacuum tube, 500 miles of wire, 6000 switches
about 100,000 operations per second, 30 tons
hardware programmable : rewiring, switching
life of vacuum tube(3000 hours) : maintenance

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 6

Stored Program concept(machines): Dr. John von Neumann
program instruction should be stored in memory unit, just like the data
EDVAC(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer):1952
UNIVAC(Universal Automatic Computer) :
delivered to Bureau of Census(1951), CBS(1952)
Bipolar Transistor : 1948 by William Shockley, John Bardeen, Walter
H. Brattain at Bell labs(1956, Novel physics award)
2nd-Generation Computer : TR
IBM : 7070/7090(1958), 1401(1959)
mainframe : describe CPU portion of computer
mainframe computer : designed to handle large volumes of data while
serving hundreds of users simultaneously
built on circuit boards mounted into rack panels(frame)

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 7

Integrated Circuit : 1958 by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments and Dr.
Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor
digital IC(RTL, register-to-transistor logic) : in the 1960s
3rd-Generation Computer : IC
IBM : 32-bit 360 series(1964)
minicomputer : low-cost, scaled-down mainframe
DEC : PDP-8(Programmed Data Processor)
INTEL(Integrated Electronics) : 1968
Robert Noyce and Gorden Moore
4000 family : 1971.11.15
4001 : 2K ROM with 4-bit I/O port
4002 : 320-bit RAM with 4-bit output port
4003 : 10-bit serial-in parallel-out shift register
4004 : 4-bit processor

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 8

Programming Advancements
machine language – binary code
assembly language – mnemonic code : UNIVAC
high-level programming language
FLOW-MATIC : 1957 by Grace Hopper
FORTRAN(FORMular TRANslator) : 1957, IBM
COBOL(Computer Business Oriented Language)
RPG(Report Program Generator)
BASIC, C/C++, PASCAL, ADA
Visual BASIC

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 9

The microprocessor age
4004(1971, world’s 1st) : 4-bit, P-channel MOSFET technology
4096 4-bit(nibble) wide memory, 45 instructions, 50KIPs
8008(1972, extended 8-bit version of 4004, 16Kbytes)
8080(1973, 1st modern 8-bit) :
2.010-6sec, TTL-compatible, 64K bytes memory
one of 1st Microcomputer : MITS Altair 8800, Kit, 1975
8085(1977, 1.3s, internal clock generator & system controller)
The modern microprocessor
16-bit : 8086(1978), 8088(1979)
IBM sold the idea of a Personal Computer : 1981.8, 8088
32-bit : 80386, 80486
64-bit : pentium ~

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 10

Microcontroller : hidden computer, one chip microcomputer
a microprocessor with on-chip memory and I/O
Supercomputer :
most powerful computer available at any given time
Cray-1 : ECL, 130 MFLOPS(millions of floating-point operations pe
r second)
Parallel Processor : Gigaflops(GFLOPS)
hypercube : arrangement of processors in the form of an n-dimension
al cube
DSP(Digital Signal Processor) :
perform complex mathematical computations on converted analog da
ta

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 11

RISC(Reduced Instruction Set Computer)
a small(<128) no. of instructions
CISC(Complex Instruction Set Computer)
a large no. of variable length instructions
multiple addressing modes
a small no. of internal processor registers
instructions that require multiple no. of clock cycle to execute
Intel’s i860 RISC processor(Cray on a chip)
82 instructions, each 32 bits in length
four addressing modes
32 general-purpose registers
all instructions execute in one clock cycle

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 12

13
14
 8086 (1978)
20-bit address bus : 1M byte(1024Kbytes) memory
instruction : over 20,000 variation
4004 : 45, 8085 : 246
A separate BIU and EU
Fetch and Execute instruction simultaneously
16-bit Internal processor registers
with the ability to access the high and low 8 bits separately
if desired
hardware multiply and divide built in
support for an external math coprocessor
perform floating-point math operations as much as 100
times faster than the processor alone via software emulation

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 15

16
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 17
 8088
8086(1978) : 16-bit data bus
requirement of two separate 8-bit memory banks to
supply its 16-bit data bus
quite expensive memory chip at the time
8088(1979) : external 8-bit data bus
IBM announced the PC : 1981.8
8088, 16K memory(expandable 64K),
4.77MHz(clock speed)
PC standard

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 18

 80186/80188
High-Integration CPUs
schematic diagram for IBM’s original PC
8088 microprocessor
several additional chips are required
80186 = 8086 + several additional chips
added 9 new instructions
clock generator
programmable timer
programmable interrupt controller
circuitry to select the I/O devices

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 19

20
 80286 (1982)
some instruction executed : 250ns(4.0MIPS) at 8MHz
24-bit address bus : 16M byte memory
added 16 new instructions
Real Mode: 1st powered on
functions exactly like an 8086
uses only its 20 least significant address lines(1M)
Protected :
A “Fatal Flaw” ?
once switched to Protected mode, should not be able to
switch back to Real mode
286 chips are operated in Real mode and thus function only
as fast 8086s
IBM AT(advanced technology) Computer :1984

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 21

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 22
 80386
flexible 32-bit Microprocessor(1986) : data bus, registers
very large address space : 32-bit address bus(4G byte
physical)
64 terabyte virtual
4G maximum segment size
integrated memory management unit
virtual memory support, optional on-chip paging
4 levels of protection
added 16 new instructions
Real Mode, Protected mode
Virtual 8086 mode : in a protected and paged system
386SX : 16-bit external data bus, 24-bit address bus
386EX : 16-bit external data bus, 26-bit address bus
1995, called embedded PC
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 23
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 24
 80486
Intel released 80486 in 1989
maintaining compatibility : standard(8086,286,386)
polished & refined 386 : twice as fast as 386
redesigned using RISC concept :
frequently used instruction : a single clock cycle
new 5-stage execution pipeline
highly integrated
8K memory cache
floating-point processor(equivalent of the external 387)
added 6 new instructions : for used by OS

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 25

26
 80486
486SX :
for low-end applications that do not require a coprocessor or
internal cache
clock speed limited 33MHz
486DX2 & DX4 :
internal clock rate is twice or 3 times external clock rate
486DX4 100 : internal 100MHz, external 33MHz
Overdrive Processor:
486DX2 or DX4 chips with overdrive socket pin-outs
to upgrade low-speed 486DX, SX with 486DX2, DX4

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 27

 Pentium
increasing the complexity of the IC: to scale the chip dow
n
if every line could be shrunk in half, same circuit could be buil
t in one-forth the area
Superscaler : support 2 instruction pipelines(5 stage)
ALU, address generation circuit, data cache interface
actually execute two different instruction simultaneously
Pentium(1993) : originally labeled P5(80586)
60, 66MHz(110MIPS)
8K code cache, 8K data cache
coprocessor : redesign(8-stage instruction pipeline)
external data bus : 64 bit(higher data transfer rates)
added 6 new instructions : for used by OS
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 28
29
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 30
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 31
 Pentium pro
codenamed P6 : 1995
basic clock frequency : 150, 166MHz
two chips in one : two separate silicon die
processor(large chip), 256K level two cache
Superscaler processor of degree three(12 stage)
internal cache :
level one(L1) : 8K instruction and data cache
level two(L2) : 256K(or 512K)
36-bit address bus : 64G byte memory
has been optimized to efficiently execute 32-bit code
bundled with Windows NT : server market

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 32

PentiumⅡand PentiumⅡXeon Microprocessor
PentiumⅡmicroprocessor released in 1997
PentiumⅡ module : small circuit board
Pentium pro with MMX : no internal L2 cache
512K L2 cache(operated at speed of 133MHz)
main reason :
L2 cache found main board of Pentium : 60, 66MHz
not fast enough to justify a new microprocessor
Pentium pro : not well yield
266~333MHz with 100MHz bus speed : in 1998
bottleneck : external bus speed 66MHz
use of 8ns SDRAM :

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 33

PentiumⅡand PentiumⅡXeon Microprocessor

new version of PentiumⅡcalled Xeon : mid-1998

for high-end workstation and server applications
main difference from PentiumⅡ :
L1 cache size : 32K bytes
L2 cache size : 512K, 1M, 2M
change in Intel’s strategy :
professional version and home/business version of
PentiumⅡ microprocessor

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 34

 Pentium Ⅲ Microprocessor
1. used faster core than PentiumⅡ
is still P6 or Pentium pro processor
2. Two version :
bus speed : 100MHz
1. slot 1 version mounted on a plastic cartridge
512K cache : one-half the clock speed
2. socket 370 version called flip-chip : looks like the
older Pentium package → Intel claim cost less
256K cache : clock speed
3. clock frequency : 1 GHz
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 35
 Pentium 4 Microprocessor
release in late 2000 : used Intel P6 architecture
main difference :
1. clock speed : 1.3, 1.4, 1.5 GHz
2. support to use RAMBUS memory technology
DDR(double-data-rate) SDRAM : both edge
3. interconnection : from aluminum to copper
copper : is better conductor → increase clock frequency
bus speed : from current max. of 133MHz to 200MHz or
higher

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 36

 The Future of Microprocessors
no one can really make accurate prediction :
success of Intel family should continue for quite a few years
what may occur is : will occur
a change to RISC technology,
but more likely a change to a new technology being
developed jointly by Intel and Hewlett-Packard
new technology :
even will embody CISC instruction set of 80X86 family ,
so that software for system will survive
basic premise behind this technology : many 
will communicate directly with each other, allowing parallel
processing without any change to instruction set or program
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 37
1-2 The microprocessor-based personal
computer system
Bus : set of common connection that carry the
same type of information(address, data, control)

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 38

 Memory and I/O system
Fig. 1-5 The memory map of the personal computer

Expanded Memory (EM

S)
XMS( 100000H~)
High Memory Area(HM
A, 100000~10FFEFH)
Upper Memory Block (U
MB,A0000~100000H )
Transient Program Area
(basic memory)

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 39

 I/O space
Fig. 1-9 I/O map of a PC

I/O space : allows computer to access up to

64K different 8-bit I/O devices
I/O port address: addresses an I/O device
I/O devices : allow microprocessor to
communicate between itself and outside world
Two major section
~03FFH : reserved for system devices
~00FFH : components on main board
0100~03FFH : devices located on plug-in
cards
0400F~FFFFH : for user

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 40

 The Microprocessor
µ(Central Processing Unit) : controls memory and I/O through a
series of connections called busses
buses : select an I/O and memory device, transfer data between an
I/O device or memory and microprocessor, and control the I/O and
memory system
memory and I/O : controlled through instructions that are stored in
the memory and executed by the microprocessor
performs three main tasks for computer system ;
data transfer between itself and memory or I/O
simple arithmetic and logic operations
program flow via simple decisions
stored program concept(Von Neumann): has made
microprocessor and computer system very powerful devices

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 41

Table 1-3 Simple arithmetic and logic operations

data : are operated upon

from memory system or i
nternal registers
data width : byte, wor
d, doubleword
µ : contains numeric cop
rocessor(from 80486, flo
ating point arithmetic)

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 42

Table 1-4 Decisions

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 43

 Bus
bus : A common group of wires that interconnect
components in a computer system (Fig. 1-10)
Address, Data , Control bus

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 44

 Bus
address bus : requests a memory location from memory
or an I/O location from I/O devices (Fig. 1-10, Table 1-5)
16-bit I/O address(port address, port no.) : 0000~FFFFH
data bus : transfer information between microprocessor
and its memory and I/O address space (Fig. 1-10)
advantage(wider data bus) : speed in application that
use wide data (Fig. 1-11)
control bus : contains lines that
select the memory and I/O
cause them to perform a read or write operation
MRDC. MWTC, IORC, IOWC
memory read : send memory an address through address
bus, send MRDC, read data through data bus

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 45

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 46
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 47
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 48
 1-3 number systems

digit :
decimal(base 10) : 0 – 9
binary : 0 – 1, octal : 0 – 7, hexadecimal : 0 – 9, A - F
positional notation :
radix(number base) point : decimal point
weight : · · · 101(tens position), 100(units), 10-1, · ·
Ex. : 132 = 1100+310+21 = 1102+3101+2100
EX. 1-3, 1-4

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 49

1-3 number systems

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 50

 Conversion to Decimal

write down the weights of each position of the number

EX. 1-5, 6, 7

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 51

Conversion to Decimal

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 52

 Conversion from Decimal number

separate into an integer part and a fraction part

conversion from a decimal integer
1. divide by the radix(number base)
2. save the remainder(1st remainder is least
significant digit)
3. repeat steps 1 and 2 until the quotient is zero
EX. 1-8, 1-9, 1-10

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 53

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 54
 Conversion from Decimal number

conversion from a decimal fraction

1. multiply by the radix(number base)
2. save the whole no. position of the result(even
if zero) as a digit. Note that the 1st result is
written immediately to the right of the radix
point
3. repeat steps 1 and 2 until the fraction part is
zero
EX. 1-11, 12, 13

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 55

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 56
 Binary-Coded Hexadecimal
EX. 1-14 : 2AC = 0010 1010 1100
EX. 1-15 : 1000 0011 1101 . 1110 = 83D.E

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 57

 Complements
Radix(r’s) complement
Radix-1((r-1)’s, diminished radix) complement
Base-r number system No. N(n digit)
r’s : rn – N
(r-1)’s : (rn – 1) – N
Main problem of Radix-1:negative or positive zero
(r-1)’s:
Each digit is subtracted form (r-1)
EX. 1-16, 17

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 58

 Complements

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 59

 Complements
r’s : EX. 1-19, 20
find (r-1) complement, and then add a one to the result

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 60

 1-4 Computer Data Formats
ASCII, BCD, signed and unsigned integer, real
ASCII(American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
Alphanumeric character, 7-bit code

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 61

8-bit ASCII code = parity bit + 7-bit ASCII
extended ASCII character set
some foreign letters and punctuation, Greek characters,
mathematical characters, box-drawing characters, and other
special characters

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 62

unicode(16-bit) : windows-based application
0000H~00FFH : standard ASCII code
0100H~FFFFH : all world-wide character sets
ASCII data : by using special directive
Define Byte(s):DB, BYTE – surrounded by apostrophes(‘)

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 63

 Binary-Coded Decimal(BCD) Data
packed BCD data : stored as two digits per byte
unpacked BCD : stored as one digit per byte

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 64

 Byte-Sized Data
unsigned and signed integers
unsigned no. : 0 ~ 255(00H ~ FFH)
signed no. : -128 ~ +127(80H ~ 7FH)

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 65

Byte-Sized Data

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 66

Byte-Sized Data

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 67

 Word-Sized Data
little endian : least significant byte – lowest-no. memory
big endian

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 68

 Word-Sized Data
signed and unsigned word-sized data
define word(s) directive : DW, WORD
1000H : displayed by 1000, actually stored as 00 10

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 69

 Double Word-Sized Data
32 bit(4 byte) no.

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 70

 Double Word-Sized Data
define doubleword(s) directive : DD, DWORD

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 71

 Real Number(Floating-point Number)
single-precision : 4 byte(32 bit)
double-precision : 8 byte(64 bit)

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 72

 Single Precision
sign-bit, 8-bit exponent, 24-bit fraction(mantissa)
Mantissa : implied(hidden) one-bit + 23-bit
1st bit of normalized real no.
Biased exponent
127(7FH) : -126 ~ +127 → 1 ~ 254
Exception
e=255, m=0 : infinity
e=0, m=0 : zero
e=255, m≠0 : not a no.
e=0, m≠0 : denormalized

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 73

Single Precision

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 74

 Real Number
single precision : DD, REAL4
double precision : DQ(define quadword), REAL8

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Mic 75