MOLECULES,

MOLES, AND
CHEMICAL
EQUATION

CHAPTER 3
CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Chapter Objectives
After mastering this chapter, you should be able to
• list at least three characteristics of explosive chemical reactions.
• explain balancing a chemical equation as an application of the law of
conservation of mass.
• list at least three quantities that must be conserved in chemical reactions.
• write balanced chemical equations for simple reactions, given either an
unbalanced equation or a verbal description.
• explain the concept of a mole in your own words.
• interpret chemical equations in terms of both moles and molecules.
• interconvert between mass, number of molecules, and number of moles.
• determine a chemical formula from elemental analysis (i.e., from %
composition).
• define the concentration of a solution and calculate the molarity of
solutions from appropriate data.
• calculate the molarity of solutions prepared by dilution or calculate the
quantities needed to carry out a dilution to prepare a solution of a
specified concentration.
INSIGHTS INTO EXPLOSION
° The most fundamental requirement for an explosive
reaction is that it must release a large amount of
energy.
° An explosive is most useful if it can be handled
safely and then detonated readily on demand, but
these objectives are not always mutually
compatible. The same properties that lead to safe
handling can also make detonation more difficult.
° Another common trait of explosive reactions is that
they happen very fast.
° Modern explosives are generally solids. But that
was not always true; liquid nitroglycerin was one of
the first widely used explosives. Liquids are much
harder to transport and handle than solids, though,
and early use of nitroglycerin was plagued by many
accidents due to unintentional detonation.
 Alfred Nobel’s invention of dynamite provided a powerful explosive in solid form. The actual
explosive in dynamite is nitroglycerin, whose molecular structure is shown.

 Nitroglycerin is a liquid under ordinary conditions, so its use as a commercial explosive was
extremely hazardous.
CHEMICAL FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
 are designed to represent the transformation of one or more chemical species into new substances.
 to ensure that their meanings are clear, we follow a set of conventions when writing chemical equations.
 each chemical equation has two sides, and we usually envision the reaction as proceeding from left to right.
 the original materials are called the reactants and they appear on the left-hand side of the equation. The
compounds that are formed from the reaction are called products and appear on the right-hand side of the
equation.
 an arrow is used to represent the changes that occur during the reaction. Thus we can write a completely
generic chemical equation:
Reactants Products
 ° Balloon filled with a mixture of H2 and O2 explodes in a
EXAMPLE: classroom demonstration. The gas mixture in the balloon
is stable until ignited by the flame from a candle. Once
 We use chemical formulas to identify the specific ignited, the balloon explodes in a ball of flame as the
reactants and products. reaction takes place. The accompanying microscopic
scale illustration shows the molecular species present
 The physical states of the compounds are often before and after reaction.
designated; (s) indicates a solid, (l,) a liquid, (g)
a gas, and (aq) a substance dissolved in water.
 We can write the reaction of hydrogen with
oxygen, which is often done as a lecture
demonstration, as a simple example.
 WRITING AND BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATION
° CONVENTIONS USED IN WRITING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Four conventions are used to write chemical equation.
EXAMPLE:
WORD DESCRIPTION: Calcium Sulfide reacts with water to produce Calcium Oxide and Hydrogen Sulfide.
CHEMICAL EQUATION: CaS +  CaO +

1. The correct formulas of the reactants are always written on the left side of the equation.
CaS +  CaO +
2. The correct formulas of the products are always written on the right side of the equation.
CaS +  CaO +
3. The reactants and products are separated by an arrow pointing toward the products.
CaS +  CaO +
This arrow means “to produce”.

4. Plus signs are used to separate different reactants or different products.

CaS +  CaO +
Plus signs on the reactant side of the equation mean “react with” and plus signs on the product side mean “and”.
 A VALID CHEMICAL EQUATION MUST SATISFY TWO CONDITIONS:
1. It must be consistent with experimental facts.
- Only the reactants and products that are actually involved in the reaction are shown in the equation.
- an accurate formula must be used for each of these substances.
-elements in solid and liquid states are separated in the equations by the chemical symbol for the element.
-elements that are gases at room temperature are represented by the molecular formula denoting the form in which they actually
occur in nature.
The following monoatomic, diatomic, and tetraatomic elemental gases are known.
MONOATOMIC: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe
DIATOMIC: , , , , , (vapor), (vapor)
TETRAATOMIC: (vapor), (vapor)

2. There must be the same number of atoms of each kind of both sides of the chemical equation.
- chemical equation that satisfy this condition are said to be balanced.
- a balanced chemical equation is a chemical equation that has the same number of atoms of each element
involved in the reaction on each side of the equation.
- Because the conventions previously listed for writing equations do not guarantee that an equation will be
balanced, we now consider the procedures for balancing equation.
 BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATION
° The underlying premise of the chemical equation is that it is a written representation of a chemical reaction.
So any reasonable representation must be consistent with all of our observations of the actual reaction.
° One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the law of conservation of matter: matter is neither created
nor destroyed.
° If we specifically exclude nuclear reactions from our consideration, this law can be phrased more specifically.
Atoms of one element are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
° A chemical reaction simply rearranges the atoms present into new compounds. In its written representation of
nature, therefore, the chemical equation must not “create or destroy” atoms.
° To uphold this condition, we must have the same number of atoms of each element on both sides of the
chemical equation.
° An equation that does not meet this condition cannot accurately represent the observed chemical reaction and
is said to be unbalanced.
GUIDELINES FOR BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
 An unbalanced chemical equation is brought into balance by adding coefficients to the equation to adjust the
number of reactant or product molecules present.
 An equation coefficient is the number that is placed to the left of a chemical formula in a chemical equation:
it changes the amount, but not the identity of the substance.

In the notation 2, 2 on the left is the coefficient : 2 means two molecules of

 An equation coefficient placed in front of a formula applies to the whole formula. By contrast, subscripts,
which are also present in formulas, affects only parts of the formula.

Coefficient affects both H and O

2
Subscripts affects only H
EXAMPLE:
1. Let’s look at the mechanics involved in determining the coefficients needed to balance a chemical equation.
Suppose we want to balance the chemical equation:
+  +

A. Examine the equation and pick one element to balance first.

+32+
3 : 3 x 2 =6
2:2x3=6
B. Now pick a second element to balance.
2 +32+
C. Now pick a third element to balance.
2 + 3  2 +2
D. As a final check on the correctness of the balancing procedure, count atoms on each side of the equation.
The following table can be constructed from our balanced equation.
2+ 2+2

ATOM LEFT SIDE RIGHT SIDE

Fe 1 x 2 =2 1 x 2 =2
I 2 x 2 =4 2 x 2 =4
Cl 2 x 3 =6 3 x 2 =6
1. The chemical CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O reaction for the burning of methane (CH4) in oxygen illustrates the
concept of atom balance for chemical equations.
2. The equation is shown first in symbolic form, with each compound represented by its chemical formula. The
individual molecules are pictured in the center row and then are broken down into their constituent atoms. The
number of atoms of each element is the same on the left- and right-hand sides.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
1. Propane, , is used as a fuel for gas barbecue grills, where it burns in a controlled fashion. But if a mixture of
propane and air is ignited in a closed space, like a gas pipeline, an explosion can easily result. In either of these
cases, the propane combines with oxygen, , to form carbon dioxide and water. Write a balanced chemical
equation describing this reaction.

5 3 4
EXERCISES:
1. +  +
2. +  +
3. + C  Fe +
4. +  NO + S +

5. +  +3
6. + 6 +
7. + 3C  4Fe +
8. + S  2NO +3S +
 A. A formula unit of contains three atoms: one atom

FORMULA MASS
of Sn and two atoms of F. The formula mass, the
collective mass of these three atoms, is calculated
as follows:
- Is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms
Sn : 1 x 118.71 amu = 118.71 amu
represented in the chemical formula of a substance.
F: 2 x 19.00 amu = 38.00 amu
Formula Mass of = 156.71 amu
EXAMPLE:
Using a compound’s formula and atomic masses to
calculate its formula mass B. The chemical formula for this compound contains
parenthesis. Improper interpretation of parenthesis is
1. Calculate the formula mass of each of the
common error made by students doing formula mass
following substances.
calculations. In the formula , the subscript 3 outside
A. Tin (II) Fluoride, a toothpaste additive the parenthesis affects both of the symbols inside the
parenthesis, thus we have:
B. Aluminum Hydroxide, a water purification
chemical Al: 1 x 26.98 amu = 26.98 amu
O : 3 x 16.00 amu = 48.00 amu
H : 3 x 1.01 amu = 3.03 amu
Formula Mass of = 78.01 amu
PRACTICE EXERCISE
Calculate the Formula Mass of each of the following
substances. 1.
A. Sodium Thiosulfate, a photographic chemical Na: 2 x 23.00 amu = 46.00 amu
B. CO Urea
2 , a chemical fertilizer for crops S: 2 x 32.065 amu = 64.13 amu
O : 3 x 16.00 amu = 48.00 amu
Formula Mass of = 158.13 amu

2. CO 2
N : 2 x 14.01 amu = 28.02 amu
H : 4 x 1.01 amu = 4.04 amu
C: 1 x 12.01 amu = 12.01 amu
O : 1 x 16.00 amu = 16.00 amu
2 amu
Formula Mass of CO = 60.07
THE MOLE: A COUNTING UNITS FOR CHEMISTS
 A MOLE is 6.022 x objects/molecules.
 The extremely large size of the mole unit is necessitated by the
extremely small size atoms and molecules.
AVOGADRO’s NUMBER
- is the name given to the numerical value 6.022 x .
- This designation honors Amadeo Avogadro, an Italian Physicist
whose pioneering work on gases later proved valuable determining
the number of particles present in given volumes of substances.
- When we solve problems dealing with number of objects (atoms or
molecules) present in a given number of moles of a substance.
Avogadro’s number becomes part of the conversion factor used to
relate the number of objects present to the number of moles present.
From the definition: 1 mole = 6.022 x molecules
Two conversion factors can be derived
Amadeo Avogadro (1776-1856) or
SAMPLE PROBLEM using Avogadro’s Number
Calculating the Number of Objects in a Molar
Quantity

Formula:

Moles of substance x = Particles of Substance

1. How many objects/molecules are there in each of the following

quantities?
B. 1.6 moles of oxygen atoms
1.6 moles oxygen atoms = ? Oxygen atoms
A. 0.23 mole of aspirin molecules
0.23 mole aspirin molecules = ? Aspirin molecules
1.6 moles oxygen atoms x
0.23 mole aspirin molecules x

= 9.6 x oxygen atoms

= 1.4 x aspirin molecules
MOLAR MASS
THE MASS OF A MOLE
- Is the mass, in grams, of a substance that is numerically equal to the substance’s formula mass.
EXAMPLE:
The formula mass (atomic mass) of the element Sodium (Na) is 23.00 amu; therefore, 1mole of Sodium weighs
23.00 grams.

NOTE: When you solve problems of this type, the numerical value of the molar mass becomes part of the
conversion factor used to convert from moles to grams.
For example for the compound , which has a formula mass of 44.01 amu, we can write the equality
44.01 g = 1 mole of
From this statement (equality), two conversion factors can be written:
or
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Illustrate the use of gram-to-mole conversion factors.
CALCULATING THE MASS OF A MOLAR QUANTITY OF COMPOUND
Formula:
Moles of substance x = Grams of Substance
Problem 1:
Acetaminophen, a pain killing ingredient in Tylenol formulations, has the formula . Calculate the mass, in grams, of a
0.30 mole sample of this pain reliever.
Given: 0.30 mole = ? grams
Molar mass of = ?
C : 8 x 12.01 g/mol = 96.08 g/mol
H: 9 x 1.01 g/mol = 9.09 g/mol
O: 2 x 16.00 g/mol = 32.00 g/mol
N: 1 x 14.01 g/mol = 14.01 g/mol
Molar Mass of = 151.18 g/mole or 151.18 g
SOLUTION:
0.30 mole = ? grams
Molar Mass of = 151.18 g/mole or 151.18 g
Conversion Factor :
151.18 g = 1 mole

0.30 mole x = 45 g
 CALCULATIONS USING MOLES AND MOLAR MASS
A sample of the explosive TNT ( has a mass of 650.5 g. Now we can use the molar mass to convert from mass
How many moles of TNT are in this sample? How many to moles:
molecules is this?
650.5 g TNT x = 2.86 mol TNT
STRATEGY:
We are asked to convert from mass to moles. So we must
determine the molar mass of the substance and then use it to Finally, we can convert moles to molecules using
carry out the conversion . Once we know the number of Avogadro’s number:
moles, we can easily find the number of molecules since we
know one mole contains Avogadro’s number of molecules.
Solution: 2.86 mol TNT x
First we will calculate the molar mass of TNT
C : 7x 12.01 g/mol = 84.07 g/mol
= 1.72 x molecules TNT
H : 5 x 1.01 g/mol = 5.05 g/mol
N : 3 x 14.01 g/mol = 42.03 g/mol
O : 6 x 16.00 g/mole = 96.00 g/mol
Molar Mass of TNT 227.15 g/mole
 ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS: DETERMINING EMPIRICAL FORMULA
 When a new molecule is synthesized, an elemental analysis is routinely performed to
help verify its identity.
 This test, which measures the mass percentage of each element in the compound, is also
frequently done as part of the process of identifying any substance whose composition is
unknown.
 The mass percentages describe the compound’s composition, and so they must be related
to its chemical formula.
 But the data obtained from elemental analysis describe the composition in terms of the
mass of each element, whereas the formula describes the composition in terms of the
number of atoms of each element.
 So these are two different representations of very similar information, and the molar
masses of the elements provide a connection between them.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM:
1. The explosive known as RDX contains 16.22% carbon, 2.72% hydrogen, 37.84% nitrogen, and 43.22%
oxygen by mass. Determine the empirical formula of the compound.
STRATEGY:
2. The empirical formula is based on the mole ratios among the elements in the compound, and the data given
are in terms of mass. Molar mass provides the link between mass and moles, as usual.
3. We can begin by choosing a convenient mass of the compound—usually 100 g—and use the percentages
given to find the mass of each element in that sample.
4. Then we will convert those masses into numbers of moles of each element.
5. The ratios between those numbers of moles must be the same for any sample of the compound.
6. Finally, we will need to convert those ratios into whole numbers to write the empirical formula.
SOLUTION:
1. Consider a 100-g sample of RDX. From the
percentages given, that sample will contain 16.22g
C, 2.72g H, 37.84g N, and 43.22g O. We will
convert each of these masses into moles:

The result is a small whole number ratio: 1 mole

C:2 moles of H:2 moles N:2 moles O.

So the empirical formula is .

 SAMPLE PROBLEM
Determine the empirical formula for
Chrysotile Asbestos. Chrysotile has
the following percent composition:
28.03% Mg, 21.60% Si, 1.16% H,
and 49.21% O.
CONCENTRATION
OF
SOLUTIONS
 SOLUTION,SOLUTE, SOLVENT
 When one substance dissolves into another, a solution is
formed. A solution is a homogeneous mixture consisting of
a solute dissolved into a solvent .
 The solute is the substance that is being dissolved, while
the solvent is the dissolving medium.
 Solutions can be formed with many different types and
forms of solutes and solvents.
 Solute has lesser amount as compared to solvent in a
solution.
In this sequence of photos, one of the authors prepares
aqueous solutions of CuSO4. In the upper left panel, solid
CuSO4!the solute is transferred to a flask. In the upper right
panel, water the solvent is added. The flask is shaken to speed
the dissolution process (lower left). The final photo shows
two CuSO4 solutions of different concentrations. The solution
on the left has the higher concentration, as seen from its
darker color.
Types of Saturation
 when solid solute (substance or particles) and liquid solvent are mixed, the only possible reactions are
dissolution and crystallization.
1. Dissolution is the dissolving process of the solid solute.
2. Crystallization is the opposite, causing the solid solute to remain undissolved.

Kinds of Saturation Definition

A solution with solute that dissolves until it is unable to dissolve
Saturated Solution
anymore, leaving the undissolved substances at the bottom.
A solution (with less solute than the saturated solution) that
Unsaturated Solution
completely dissolves, leaving no remaining substances.
A solution (with more solute than the saturated solution) that
Supersaturated Solution contains more undissolved solute than the saturated solution
because of its tendency to crystallize and precipitate.
 Concentration of Solution
Concentration is general term expressing
the amount of solute contained in a given
amount of material. Chemists usually
express concentration of solutions in
percent by weight, percent by volume,
molarity, normality, and molality.
Percent by Weight/Mass
° The percent by weight is found by dividing the weight of solute by the weight of
the solution and multiplying by 100.

Formula

Percent by Mass = x 100

Note:
*Unit of Mass of Solute and Mass of Solution should be in grams (g)
*If mass of Solution is not given use the formula:
Mass of Solution = Mass of Solute + Mass of Solvent
 SAMPLE PROBLEM ( % by Mass)
1. Find the percent by mass if 7.00 g of NaCl is dissolved in the solution whose total mass is 80.0g.
Given:
Mass of solute = 7.00 g NaCl
Mass of Sol’n = 80.0 g
Percent by Mass = x 100

Percent by Mass = x 100

Percent by Mass = 8.75%

This means if you have 100 g of solution, it would contain 8.75% of NaCl.
 SAMPLE PROBLEM ( % by Mass)
2. Determine the percent by weight of SodiumMolar Mass of NaCl: 58.45 g
Chloride in the following solution: 1.75 moles of NaCl
dissolved in .550 kilograms of deionized H2O.
1.75 moles of NaCl x = 102.27g NaCl
Given:
Mass of Solute: 1.75 moles of NaCl = ? g of NaCl
Second: Covert Kg to g.
Mass of Solvent: .550kg = g of H2O
.550 kg H2O x = 550 g H2O
Mass of Solution: mass of solute + mass of solvent
Third: Compute for the Percent by Weigh/Mass:
102.27 g + 550 g = 652.27 g solution
Percent by Mass = x 100

First: Find the molar mass of Solute, and convert

moles to grams: Percent by Mass = x 100
Na: 1 x 23.00 g
Cl: 1 x 35.45 g Percent by Mass = 15.68 %
PERCENT BY VOLUME
This expression is encountered only for solutions which are mixtures of liquids. Problems pertaining
to this type of expression of concentration of solution are answered in the same way as in percentage
by weight.
Formula:
Percent by Volume = x 100

Note:
*Unit of Volume of Solute and Volume of Solution should be in milliliters (mL)
*If Volume of Solution is not given use the formula:
Volume of Solution = Volume of Solute + Volume of Solvent
 SAMPLE PROBLE (% by Volume)
1. Determine the volume/volume percent solution made by combining 25 mL of ethanol with enough water to
produce 200 mL of the solution.
GIVEN:
Volume of Solute: 25 mL Ethanol
Volume of Solution: 200 mL Water
Percent by Volume = x 100

Percent by Volume = x 100

Percent by Volume = 12.5 %

 SAMPLE PROBLEM (% by Volume)
2. Calculate the volume percent of a solution that is prepared by mixing 519.2 mL of Helium and 168.4 mL
of molecular Chlorine .
GIVEN:
Volume of Solvent: 519.2 mL He
Volume of Solute: 168.4 mL Cl
Volume of solution: 687.6 mL solution
Percent by Volume = x 100

Percent by Volume = x 100

Percent by Volume = 24.49 %

MOLARITY (M)
The molarity of a compound in a solution is defined as the number of moles of the compound in one liter of
solution.

FORMULA:
M=

Note:
• Find moles of solute using Molar Mass
• Volume (L)
• UNIT: mole/L or M
• Mass of Solution = Mass of Solute + Mass of Solvent
 SAMPLE PROBLEM (MOLARITY)
1. What is the molarity of 245.0 g of H2SO4 dissolved
in 1 L of solution?
245.0 g H2SO4 x = 2.50 moles H2SO4
GIVEN:
Mass of Solute: 245.0 g H2SO4
Moles of solute=?
Mass of Sol’n = 1 L Second : Calculate for Molarity
M=
First: Find the Molar mass of Solute and convert it
into moles:
M=
H: 2 x 1.01 g = 2.02 g
S: 1 x 32.06 g = 32.06 g
O: 4 x 16.00 = 64.00 g M = 2.5 mole/L or 2.5 M
Molar Mass of Solute:98.08 g H2SO4
 SAMPLE PROBLEM (MOLARITY)
2. What is the molarity of 5.30 g of dissolved in 400.0 mL solution?
Given: 5.30 g x = 0.05 moles
Mass of Solute = 5.30 g

Mole of Solute = ?
Second: Convert the mass of sol’n from mL to L.
Mass of Solution – 400 mL  0.4 L
400 mL x = 0.4 L
First: Find Molar Mass of Solute and Convert it into Moles
Third: Calculate for the Molarity.
Na: 2 x 23g = 46 g M=
C: 1 x 12.01 g = 12.01 g
M=
O: 3 x 16.00 g = 48.00 g
Molar Mass of = 106.01 g M = 0.125 mole/L or 0.125 M
MOLALITY (m)

m=

Note:
• Find moles of solute using Molar Mass
• Volume (Kg)
• UNIT: mole/Kg or molal (m)
1.
SAMPLE PROBLEM (m)
What is the molality of a solution containing 5.0 g
NaCl dissolved in 25.0 g water?
Given:
Second: Convert gramskg
Mass of Solute = 5.0 g NaCl
25.0 g x = 0.025 kg
Moles of Solute =?
Mass of Solvent = 25.0 g  0.025 kg
Third: Calculate the Molality
m=
First: Find the molar mass of solute and convert it into
moles.
m=
Na: 1 x 23.00 g
Cl: 1 x 35.45 g
m = 3.2 mole/kg or 3.2 molal (m)
Molar Mass of NaCl: 58.45 g

5.0 g NaCl x = 0.08 mole NaCl

 SAMPLE PROBLEM (m)
2. Determine the molality of a solution prepared by
dissolving 28.60 g of glucose into 250g of
GIVEN: Second: Convert g  Kg
Mass of Solute: 28.60 g 250 g x = 0.25 kg
Moles of solute =?
Mass of Solvent = 250 g  0.25 kg Third: Calculate the Molality
m=
First: Find the molar mass of solute and convert it into
moles.
C : 6 x 12.01 g = 72.06 g m=
H : 12 x 1.01 g = 12.12 g
O : 6 x 16.00 g = 96.00 g m = 0.64 mole/Kg or 0.64 molal (m)
Molas Mass of = 180.18 g

28.60 g x = 0.16 mole