Introduction

Module-1: Introduction (Lecture-2)

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Topics to be discussed in Lecture-3
• Different Generation of Computers starting
from zero generation to Eighth Generation
and its Evolution of multi-level machines.
 The Zeroth Generation—Mechanical
Computers (1642–1945)
• The first person to build a working calculating machine
was the French scientist Blaise Pascal (1623–1662).
• German mathematician Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von
Leibniz (1646–1716) built another mechanical machine
that could multiply and divide as well.
• Professor of mathematics at the University of
Cambridge, Charles Babbage (1792–1871), the inventor
of the speedometer, designed and built his difference
engine.
• Next design and construction of a successor called the
analytical engine.
Analytical Engine

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 The First Generation—Vacuum Tubes
(1945–1955)
• The stimulus for the electronic computer was World War II.
• During the war, British intelligence managed to acquire an
ENIGMA machine from Polish Intelligence, which had stolen it
from the Germans.
• However, to break a coded message, a huge amount of
computation was needed, and it was needed very soon after the
message was intercepted to be of any use.
• The British government set up a top secret laboratory that built
an electronic computer called the COLOSSUS.
• Mauchley and his graduate student, J. Presper Eckert, proceeded
to build an electronic computer, which they called the ENIAC
(Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer).
 COLOSSUS

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Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer

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 The First Generation—Vacuum Tubes
(1945–1955)
• John von Neumann, went to Princeton’s
Institute of Advanced Studies to build his own
version of the EDVAC, the IAS machine.
• The basic design, which he first described, is
now known as a von Neumann machine.
 The First Generation—Vacuum Tubes
(1945–1955)
• The von Neumann machine had five basic parts:
the memory, the ALU, the CU, and the input and
output equipment.
• The memory consisted of 4096 words, a word
holding 40 bits, each a 0 or a 1. Each word held
either two 20-bit instructions or a 40-bit signed
integer.
• The instructions had 8 bits devoted to telling the
instruction type, and 12 bits for specifying one of
the 4096 memory words.
Von Neumann Machine

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Von Neumann Machine

The original von Neumann machine

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 IAS Memory Formats
• The memory of the IAS – Both data and instructions are
consists of1000 storage stored there
locations (called words) of
– Numbers are represented in
40 bits each
Ref [william Stalling]
binary form and each
instruction is a binary code
Structure
of
IAS
Computer

Ref [william Stalling]

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 Registers

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 The Second Generation—Transistors
(1955–1965)
• The transistor was invented at Bell Labs in 1948 by
John Bardeen , Walter Brattain, and William
Shockley, for which they were awarded the 1956
Nobel Prize in physics.
• In M.I.T 16-bit machine TX-0 (Transistorized
experimental computer 0).
• PDP-1 developed in 1961 by DEC, it had 4096 words
of 18-bit words and could execute 200,000
instructions/sec.
• The PDP-1 cost $120,000
ODD SEM 2020 IV-SEM-CSE Computer Organization and Architecture (1 15
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 PDP-1

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 The Second Generation—Transistors
(1955–1965)

A few years later DEC introduced the PDP-8, which was a 12-bit machine,
but much cheaper than the PDP-1 ($16,000).

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 The Second Generation—Transistors
(1955–1965)
• The IBM 7094 had a cycle time of 2 microsec
and 32,536 words of 36-bit words of core
memory.
• Supercomputers, including the 6600, 7600,
and Cray-1 were developed.
 Cray-1

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The Third Generation—Integrated Circuits
(1965–1980)
• By 1964 IBM(7094 and 1401) was the leading computer
company and had a big problem with its two highly
successful machines.
• They were as incompatible as two machines could be.
• One was a high-speed number cruncher using parallel
binary arithmetic on 36-bit registers, and
• The other was a glorified input/output processor using
serial decimal arithmetic on variable-length words in
memory.
• Both of them required different programming
department.
The Third Generation—Integrated Circuits
(1965–1980)
• It introduced a single product line, the IBM
System/360, based on integrated circuits, that
was designed for both scientific and
commercial computing.
• It was a family of about a half-dozen machines
with the same assembly language, and
increasing size and power.
The Third Generation—Integrated Circuits
(1965–1980)
• Another major innovation in the IBM 360 was
multiprogramming.
• The IBM 360 also was the first machine that
could emulate (simulate) other computers.
• The minicomputer world also took a big step
forward in the third generation with DEC’s
introduction of the PDP-11 series, a 16-bit
successor to the PDP-8.
 The Fourth Generation—Very Large Scale
Integration (1980-?)
• VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) had made it possible
to put first tens of thousands, then hundreds of
thousands, and finally millions of transistors on a single
chip.
• By 1980, prices had dropped so low that it was feasible
for a single individual to have his or her own computer.
• Personal computers were used in a very different way
than large computers. They were used for word
processing, spreadsheets, and numerous highly
interactive applications (such as games) that the larger
computers could not handle well.
 The Fourth Generation—Very Large Scale
Integration (1980-?)
• The first personal computers were usually sold as
kits. Each kit contained a printed circuit board, a
bunch of chips, typically including an Intel 8080,
some cables, a power supply, and perhaps an 8-
inch floppy disk.
• Another early personal computer was the Apple
and later the Apple II, designed by Steve Jobs and
Steve Wozniak. This machine was enormously
popular with home users and at schools and made
Apple a serious player almost overnight.
 The Fourth Generation—Very Large Scale
Integration (1980-?)
• IBM also did something uncharacteristic that it would later come to
regret.
• Rather than keeping the design of the machine totally secret (or at
least, guarded by a wall of patents), as it normally did, it published
the complete plans, including all the circuit diagrams, in a book that
it sold for $49.
• The idea was to make it possible for other companies to make plug-
in boards for the IBM PC, to increase its flexibility and popularity.
• Unfortunately for IBM, since the design was now completely public
and all the parts were easily available from commercial vendors,
numerous other companies began making clones of the PC, often
for far less money than IBM was charging. Thus an entire industry
started.
 The Fourth Generation—Very Large Scale
Integration (1980-?)
• With the success of the 8088 in hand, Intel went on to
make bigger and better versions of it. Particularly
noteworthy was the 386, released in 1985, which was
essentially the first Pentium.
• By the mid-1980s, a new development called RISC began to
take over, replacing complicated (CISC) architectures with
much simpler (but faster) ones.
• Up until 1992, personal computers were either 8-bit, 16-
bit, or 32-bit. Then DEC came out with the revolutionary
64-bit Alpha, a true 64-bit RISC machine that outperformed
all other personal computers by a wide margin.
 The Fifth Generation(1984-1990)
—Invisible Computers
• Unexpected way the size of the computers shrunk.
• The Apple Newton, released in 1993, showed that a
computer could be built in a package no bigger
than a portable audio cassette player.
• PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants), had improved
user interfaces and became very popular.
• The ‘‘invisible’’ computers, which are embedded
into appliances, watches, bank cards, and
numerous other devices (Bechini et al., 2004).
The Fifth Generation—Invisible Computers

• Fifth generation of computers was announced

as the “smart computers”, based on Artificial
Intelligence, and initiated by a famous project
in Japan, and ended in a dismal failure; from
here, the history of the computers generations
is a bit confusing.
 Sixth-generation computers(1990-?)
• The sixth generation it could be defined as the era of
intelligent computers, based on artificial neural networks
or “artificial brains”.
• This generation is beginning with many gains in parallel
computing.
• Combinations of parallel/vector architectures are well
established, and one corporation (Fujitsu) has announced
plans to build a system with over 200 of its high end vector
processors.
• One of the most dramatic changes in the sixth generation
will be the explosive growth of wide area networking.
Seventh and Eight Generation Computers

• Multicore processor era

• Intel Core i3 7XXX, Core i5 7XXX, Core i7 7XXX
• The new chips are also designed to handle
things like 4K video, VR, 3D, and other recent
innovations on a platform-wide level.