UNIT 5

Antenna Fundamentals
By

Dr. Swati Bhisikar

Text Books Author Title of Book Publication
Antenna Theory - Analysis and
T1 C.A. Balanis 3rd Edition John Wiley
Design

T2 Samuel Y. Liao Microwave Devices and Circuits 3rd edition, Pearson

Second edition, Tata

T3 Annapurna Das and Sisir K. Das Microwave Engineering McGraw
Hill
Reference
Books
R1 David M. Pozar Microwave Engineering Fourth edition, Wiley
Microwave Engineering : Concepts
R2 Ahmad Shahid Khan
and Fundamentals
R3 K. D. Prasad Antenna &Wave Propagation SatyaPrakashan, New Delhi
3rd edition, Umesh
R4 M. Kulkarni Microwave and Radar engineering
Publication
Electromagnetic Waves and Prentice
R5 E.C. Jordon and E.G. Balman
Radiation Systems Hall India.
Radiation
Radiation element
 Prerequisites
E = Electric field Intensity H = Magnetic Field Intensity
F/Unit charge
D = Electric Flux Density B = Magnetic Flux Density
Flux/ area

Relation : Constants:
D  E  0 ( Permitivity )  8.85*10 F / m
12

B H 0 ( Permeability )  4 *10 H / m
7

J  E   Conductivity
 Prerequisites
Maxwell’s Equations in Static conditions
Maxwell’s Equations in Time varying field

 j
t
Maxwell’s Equations in phasor form
 1a. Fundamental equation for free space
Using the vector Identity
    A  (  A)   2 A

Maxwells equation :   E   J  H
Take curl on both sides (  E )   2 E   J  (  H )
  J  (  J  ) E
assume that region of interest contains only point charge, surface & no volume charge

 v  0,   D  0,   E  0
 2 E   J  (  J  ) E
  J  (  J  )
2 E   2 E Wave Equation or Helmholtz
equation
2 H   2 H
 Assumptions:
The direction of propagation is Z. (it can be any XYZ)
Wave is in TEM mode
The field is constant (Uniform) in the plane perpendicular to the direction
of propagation.
3-dimensional EM wave
 E s  E xs ( z ) a
ˆx

 2

  2 E xs ( z )  0

This is a scalar wave equation, a linear homogeneous differential equation.

 E xs ( z )  E0 e z  E0' e  z
where E0 and E0' are constants.
E xs ( z )  E0 e z

E xs(z)e  jt  E0 e  γz e  jt 

 E ( z , t )  Re E0 e z e  j t  z aˆ x 
E ( z , t )  ReE xs(z)aˆ x  or E ( z , t )  E0 e z cost   z aˆ x
Similarly

 Re E0 e  γz e  jt aˆ x  
H ( z , t )  Re H 0 e z e j t  z aˆ y 
E0
where H 0 

 T T
Plot of E ( z , t )  E 0 sin(  t   z ) at time ( a ) t  0, ( b ) t  ,(c)t  ;
4 2

p moves in the  z  direction with velocity u

Problem
An electric field in free space is given by

E  50 cos(10 t   x ) a y V / m
8

(a) Find the direction of wave propagation.

(b) Calculate β and the time it takes to travel a distance of λ/2.
(c) Sketch the wave at t=0, T/4, T/2.
Ans
(a) Direction= -ax
(b) Β=0.33rad/m
(c) T1=31.42ns
Wave travels along –ax.
 j wm 
h= u
s + j we 
Free Space
  0,    0 ,    0
Using these values

 0
 2
    0 0  
c 
1
u c 0
 0 0 0   120  377
0
1b.Friis Transmission equation
The maximum directive gain and effective area are related

4 Ae 2
G  Ae or 
 2
G 4
PG   2

Pr  t t
 GR  
4 R 2
 4 
2
Pr   
  Gt GR
Pt  4 R 

2
 4 R 
Path Loss  Spatial Attenuation Factor   
  
Electric field at receiving antenna
Wt  E  H
E

H
E E2
Wt  E  
 
E Wt 
where
  120
Gt Pt
E  120
4 R 2

30Gt Pt 30Gt Pt
E OR E V /m
R2 R
Problem on friis equation
A wave originating from the transmitting antenna with 10 dB gain and
150 W Radiating power at 100 MHz. It is received by an antenna with 18
dB gain located at 25 Km distance, Calculate the received power, Path
loss ( free space transmission loss) and E-field strength ?
 2a. Introduction to Antenna:
An antenna is defined as “a usually metallic
device (as a rod or wire) for radiating or
receiving radio waves.”

The IEEE Standards:-the antenna or aerial as

“a means for radiating or receiving radio
waves.”
 What is antenna ?
The antenna is a transducer between free space and transmission line.
The antenna is the transitional structure between free-space and a guiding device.
• The antenna impedance is represented by
ZA = (RL + Rr ) + j XA RA = ( RL + Rr )
RL = Load resistance (Loss resistance due to conduction and dielectric losses in antenna
structure).
Rr = Radiation resistance, is used to represent radiation by the antenna. (Real part)
For a lossless antenna the real part of the input impedance is known as radiation resistance (R r).
XA = Reactance of the antenna (imaginary part)
 Impedances of real Transmission Lines
1. 50Ω :- RF, Microwave (Lab.)
2. 75Ω :- DTH antenna to Set top box (STB),
Yagi-Uda antenna to TV receiver
Cable TV
3. 300Ω :- Twin lead or flat (Yagi-Uda antenna to TV receiver)
4. 600Ω :-Telephone line
Why 50 Ω ?
Power Transfer Efficiency
Transmission Line Terminated With Z0
Transmission Line Terminated with Short, Open
Standing wave pattern
Relation between RL, ,VSWR
High-Frequency Device Characterization (VNA)
2b.Radiation Mechanism
 Why does antenna radiate?

 If a charge is not moving, current is not created

and there is no radiation.

If charge is moving with a uniform velocity:

a. There is no radiation if the wire is straight, and
infinite in extent.
b. There is radiation if the wire is curved, bent,
discontinuous, terminated, or truncated, as shown
in Figure . (Acceleration & Deceleration of charge-
change in velocity)

If charge is oscillating in a time-

motion, it radiates even if the wire is
straight.
 Displacement current

Conduction current

Dielectric

(Displacement current)

Conduction current

Conduction current = Displacement current

 CURRENT DISTRIBUTION ON A THIN WIRE ANTENNA

AC Source,
with f
/4 /4 /4

/4 /4 /4

Electric and Magnetic Field
Current distribution on linear dipoles
 Half-Wavelength Dipole (λ/2)
1) Length , l= λ/2
λ= operating wavelength of the signal.
f=c/ λ
2) It is a Resonant antenna (Principle of resonance)
3) Zin=73+j42.5 Ohm (at l= λ/2)
4) Radiation resistance=73 Ohm
5) Impedance matching is done by reducing its
length till inductive part vanishes.
 2c.Types of Antennas

1) Wire Antenna

2) Aperture Antenna

3) Microstrip Antenna

4) Array Antenna

5) Reflector Antenna
 1) Wire Antenna
Simplest

Dipole, used at HF and UHF

Easy to feed,

Easy to fabricate

Light weight
Low gains

52
 2) Aperture Antenna
Horn

Opened Wave guide

Slots

Used at Microwave

Moderate Gain

53 12/15/23
 3) Microstrip Antenna

Relatively New

Printed conductor on Substrate

Compatible with planar

Microwave circuit used at microwave

low gains

54 12/15/23
 4) Array Antenna
# These are used to produce the desired
radiation characteristics.

# Five controls that can be used to shape the

overall pattern of the antenna:
1)The geometrical configuration of the overall
array ( linear , circular , rectangular )
2)The relative displacement between the
elements.
3)The excitation amplitude of the individual
elements.
4)The excitation phase of the individual
elements.
5)The relative pattern of the individual
elements.
GMRT (Khodad, Narayangaon, Pune)
Ooty Radio Telescope
 5) Reflector Antenna
# Various geometrical configurations
( plane , curved reflectors ( especially the
paraboloid) ).

# Widely used in radio astronomy , microwave

communication , satellite tracking , and DTH.

# They are usually large in diameters to achieve

the high gain required to transmit or receive
signals over larg distances.

59 12/15/23
3.Fundamental parameters of an antenna
 INTRODUCTION
Fundamental parameters are used to describe the performance of any
antenna.
Some of the parameters are interrelated and not all of them need be
specified for complete description of the antenna performance.
Examples:
a. Gain = ecd* Directivity
b. HPBW=1/Directivity
 Fundamental Parameters of Antenna
Radiation pattern
 Directivity
 Gain
 Efficiency
Half power beam width
Bandwidth
Polarization
Input impedance
Radiation efficiency
Effective length, effective area, radiation sphere
 RADIATION PATTERN

• An antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is

defined as “a mathematical function or a graphical
representation of the radiation properties of the antenna
as a function of space coordinates.
• In most cases, the radiation pattern is determined in the
far field region.
• Radiation properties include :radiation intensity , field
strength , directivity , and polarization.
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Coordinate system for antenna analysis

r:- 0 to infinite
Θ:- 0 to π
Φ:- 0 to 2π
Azimuth angle (Ф= 0 to 2π )

Elevation angle (ϴ= 0 to π )

How to obtain Radiation pattern

Dipole Antenna
Normalized patterns
In practice, the 3-D pattern is measured and recorded in a series of 2-D
patterns.
However, for most practical applications, a few plots of the pattern (ϴ , Ф
= constant) + plots of the pattern (Ф, ϴ = constant ).
Some antennas, depending on their geometry and also observation
distance, may have only one, two, or all three components.
In general, the magnitude of the total electric field would be
Radiation Pattern Lobes
Various parts of a radiation pattern are referred to as lobes, which may be
sub- classified:
Major or Main lobe (the radiation lobe containing the direction of
maximum radiation)
Minor lobe (any lobe except a major lobe , undesirable)
Side lobe ( a radiation lobe in any direction other than the intended lobe
)- Side Lobe Level (SLL)
In most radar systems, low SLL is very important to minimize false target
indications.
Back lobe (a radiation lobe whose axis makes an angle of approximately
180◦ with respect to the beam of an antenna)- Front to Back Ratio (FBR)
 Isotropic Pattern

• A hypothetical lossless antenna having equal radiation in all directions.

• Although it is ideal and not physically realizable.
• It is often taken as a reference for expressing the directive properties of actual
antennas.
• Go=Do=1 (all directional radiator)
dBi—For use with isotropic antennas.
Example:-2.5dBi
Note: They are used only as theoretical (mathematical) references.
They do not exist in the real world.
 Directional Pattern
Having the property of radiating or receiving EM waves more effectively in
some directions than in others.

Reference :- Half-wave dipole.

G&D(directional antenna)> G&D(isotropic)

Dipole Antenna
Isotropic Pattern

Directional Pattern

Directional in E-Plane

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Radiation pattern
Quantity Near-field (Reactive) Far-field (Radiated)

Energy Stores energy. Propagates (radiates) energy.

Can transfer energy via inductive or
capacitive coupling.

Longevity Disappears when source Propagates until absorbed.

is turned off.

Shape of Field Completely dependent on source Field Spherical waves. At very long
circuit distances, field takes shape of plane
waves.

Wave Depends on source circuit and Depends solely on propagation medium

Impedance medium (η = 120π = 377 Ω in
free space).
Radian
It is used to measure a plane angle.
1 rad:- The plane angle with its vertex at the center of a circle of radius r that
is subtended by an arc whose length is r.
Steradian
The steradian is used to measure a solid angle.
1 sr:- The solid angle with its vertex at the center of a sphere of radius r that is
subtended by a spherical surface area of r2.
Area of sphere, A = 4πr2, full sphere consists of 4π steradian i.e. (4πr2/r2)
steradian in a closed sphere.
Beamwidth
The angular separation between two identical points on opposite side of the
pattern maximum.
E(θ)@half-power=0.707(Field pattern, linear scale)OR 0.5(Power pattern ,
linear scale)
OR -3dB (Power pattern , dB scale)
HPBW=17° (Global beam)
HPBW= 1 ° or 2 ° ( Microwave Links)
HPBW ↑→Side lobe level↓→Directivity↓
However, in practice, the term beamwidth, with no other identification, usually
refers to HPBW.

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Isotropic source
Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined
as “the power radiated from an antenna per unit
solid angle.”
It is a far field parameter and can be obtained by
multiplying radiation density by square of the
distance.
Total power is obtained by integrating radiation intensity
 Relative gain
Defined as: The ratio of the power gain in a given direction to the power
of a reference antenna in its reference direction.
 Antenna Radiation Efficiency
The conduction-dielectric efficiency ecd is defined as the ratio of the power
delivered to the radiation resistance Rr to the power delivered to Rr and RL .
For a lossless antenna the real part of the input impedance is known as radiation
resistance (Rr).
RL = Load resistance (Loss resistance due to conduction and dielectric losses in
antenna structure).
RA = ( RL + Rr )
 Polarization
Polarization is the orientation of electric field component of
an electromagnetic wave relative to the Earth’s surface.
Polarization is important to get the maximum performance
from the antennas .
There are different types of polarization (depending on
existence and changes of different electric fields)

Linear
Circular (E and E )
x y
Elliptical

Polarization can change as the signal travels away from the source!
Due to the magnetic field of Earth (results in Faraday rotation) ,
Due to reflection
Linear Polarization
Vertical (E field going up/down with respect to earth’s surface)
Horizontal (E field changing in parallel with respect to earth’s surface)
 Linear Polarization

Vertical

E x  A sin(t   z )

Horizontal

E y  A sin(t   z   )
(a) When for a wave only Ex component is present and Ey=0 i.e.
E  E1 sin t   z aˆ x
In this case the wave is called as linearly polarized in x-direction

(b) Similarly for only for Ey component and Ex=0

E  E2 sin t   z   aˆ y

Circular Polarization
Circularly polarized light consists of two perpendicular electromagnetic
plane waves of equal amplitude and 90° difference in phase.
 Circularly polarized light
Right circular

E x  A sin(t   z )

E y  A sin(t   z  90)

Left circular

Ex  A sin(t   z )

E y  A sin(t   z  90)
A circularly polarized wave as a sum of two linearly polarized
components 90° out of phase
Circular Polarization
Elliptical Polarization
Polarization Loss Factor