Relational Algebra
Relational Algebra
Relational Algebra
Slide No:L1-1
Example Instance of Students Relation
Slide No:L1-3
The SQL Query Language
SELECT *
FROM Students S WHERE S.age=18
Slide No:L1-4
Querying Multiple Relations
Slide No:L1-5
Creating Relations in SQL
Slide No:L1-6
Destroying and Altering Relations
DROP TABLE Students
• Destroys the relation Students. The schema
information and the tuples are deleted.
Slide No:L1-7
Adding and Deleting Tuples
DELETE
FROM Students S
WHERE S.name = ‘Smith’
Slide No:L1-8
Integrity Constraints (ICs)
• IC: condition that must be true for any instance of the database;
e.g., domain constraints.
– ICs are specified when schema is defined.
– ICs are checked when relations are modified.
Slide No:L1-9
Primary Key Constraints
Slide No:L1-10
Primary and Candidate Keys in SQL
• Links in HTML!
Slide No:L1-12
Foreign Keys in SQL
Enrolled
sid cid grade Students
sid name login age gpa
53666 Carnatic101 C
53666 Reggae203 B 53666 Jones jones@cs 18 3.4
53650 Topology112 A 53688 Smith smith@eecs 18 3.2
53666 History105 B 53650 Smith smith@math 19 3.8
Slide No:L1-13
Enforcing Referential Integrity
• Consider Students and Enrolled; sid in Enrolled is a foreign key that
references Students.
• What should be done if an Enrolled tuple with a non-existent student id
is inserted? (Reject it!)
• What should be done if a Students tuple is deleted?
– Also delete all Enrolled tuples that refer to it.
– Disallow deletion of a Students tuple that is referred to.
– Set sid in Enrolled tuples that refer to it to a default sid.
– (In SQL, also: Set sid in Enrolled tuples that refer to it to a special
value null, denoting `unknown’ or `inapplicable’.)
• Similar if primary key of Students tuple is updated.
Slide No:L2-1
Referential Integrity in SQL
• SQL/92 and SQL:1999 support all
4 options on deletes and updates.
– Default is NO ACTION
(delete/update is rejected) CREATE TABLE Enrolled
– CASCADE (also delete all (sid CHAR(20),
tuples that refer to deleted cid CHAR(20),
tuple)
– SET NULL / SET DEFAULT
grade CHAR(2),
(sets foreign key value of PRIMARY KEY (sid,cid),
referencing tuple) FOREIGN KEY (sid)
REFERENCES Students
ON DELETE CASCADE
ON UPDATE SET
DEFAULT )
Slide No:L2-2
Where do ICs Come From?
Slide No:L2-3
Logical DB Design: ER to Relational
Slide No:L3-1
Relationship Sets to Tables
Slide No:L3-2
Review: Key Constraints
Translation to
relational model?
Slide No:L3-4
Review: Participation Constraints
since
name dname
ssn lot did budget
Works_In
since
Slide No:L3-5
Participation Constraints in SQL
Slide No:L3-6
Review: Weak Entities
name
cost pname age
ssn lot
Slide No:L4-1
Translating Weak Entity Sets
Slide No:L4-2
Review: ISA Hierarchies
name
As in C++, or other ssn lot
PLs, attributes are
inherited. Employees
If we declare A ISA B,
hourly_wages hours_worked
every A entity is also ISA
contractid
considered to be a B
entity. Contract_Emps
Hourly_Emps
Slide No:L4-3
Translating ISA Hierarchies to Relations
• General approach:
– 3 relations: Employees, Hourly_Emps and Contract_Emps.
• Hourly_Emps: Every employee is recorded in
Employees. For hourly emps, extra info recorded in
Hourly_Emps (hourly_wages, hours_worked, ssn); must
delete Hourly_Emps tuple if referenced Employees tuple
is deleted).
• Queries involving all employees easy, those involving
just Hourly_Emps require a join to get some attributes.
• Alternative: Just Hourly_Emps and Contract_Emps.
– Hourly_Emps: ssn, name, lot, hourly_wages, hours_worked.
– Each employee must be in one of these two subclasses.
Slide No:L4-4
Review: Binary vs. Ternary Relationships
name
ssn lot pname age
• What are the
additional Employees Covers
constraints in the
Dependents
2nd diagram? Bad design Policies
policyid cost
Purchaser
Beneficiary
Slide No:L4-5
policyid cost
Binary vs. Ternary Relationships (Contd.)
CREATE TABLE Policies (
• The key
constraints allow policyid INTEGER,
us to combine cost REAL,
Purchaser with ssn CHAR(11) NOT NULL,
Policies and PRIMARY KEY (policyid).
Beneficiary with FOREIGN KEY (ssn) REFERENCES Employees,
Dependents. ON DELETE CASCADE)
• Participation CREATE TABLE Dependents (
constraints lead pname CHAR(20),
to NOT NULL
age INTEGER,
constraints.
policyid INTEGER,
• What if Policies
PRIMARY KEY (pname, policyid).
is a weak entity
set? FOREIGN KEY (policyid) REFERENCES Policies,
ON DELETE CASCADE)
Slide No:L4-6
Views
Slide No:L5-1
Views and Security
Slide No:L5-2
View Definition
• A relation that is not of the conceptual model but is
made visible to a user as a “virtual relation” is called
a view.
• A view is defined using the create view statement
which has the form
Slide No:L5-3
Example Queries
• A view consisting of branches and their customers
create view all_customer as
(select branch_name, customer_name
from depositor, account
where depositor.account_number =
account.account_number )
union
(select branch_name, customer_name
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan_number =
loan.loan_number )
Find all customers of the Perryridge branch
select customer_name
from all_customer
where branch_name = 'Perryridge'
Slide No:L5-4
Uses of Views
• Hiding some information from some users
– Consider a user who needs to know a customer’s name,
loan number and branch name, but has no need to see the
loan amount.
– Define a view
(create view cust_loan_data as
select customer_name, borrower.loan_number,
branch_name
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number )
– Grant the user permission to read cust_loan_data, but not
borrower or loan
• Predefined queries to make writing of other queries
easier
– Common example: Aggregate queries used for statistical
analysis of data
Slide No:L5-5
Processing of Views
• When a view is created
– the query expression is stored in the database along with the
view name
– the expression is substituted into any query using the view
• Views definitions containing views
– One view may be used in the expression defining another view
– A view relation v1 is said to depend directly on a view relation
v2 if v2 is used in the expression defining v1
– A view relation v1 is said to depend on view relation v2 if either
v1 depends directly to v2 or there is a path of dependencies
from v1 to v2
– A view relation v is said to be recursive if it depends on itself.
Slide No:L5-6
View Expansion
• A way to define the meaning of views defined in terms of
other views.
• Let view v1 be defined by an expression e1 that may itself
contain uses of view relations.
• View expansion of an expression repeats the following
replacement step:
repeat
Find any view relation vi in e1
Replace the view relation vi by the expression defining
vi
until no more view relations are present in e1
• As long as the view definitions are not recursive, this loop will
terminate
Slide No:L5-7
With Clause
• The with clause provides a way of defining a
temporary view whose definition is available only to
the query in which the with clause occurs.
• Find all accounts with the maximum balance
Slide No:L5-8
Complex Queries using With Clause
• Find all branches where the total account deposit is greater
than the average of the total account deposits at all branches.
Slide No:L5-10
Formal Relational Query Languages
Slide No:L6-1
Example Instances
R1 sid bid day
22 101 10/10/96
58 103 11/12/96
• “Sailors” and “Reserves”
relations for our examples. sid sname rating age
• We’ll use positional or S1
named field notation, 22 dustin 7 45.0
assume that names of
fields in query results are 31 lubber 8 55.5
`inherited’ from names of 58 rusty 10 35.0
fields in query input
relations. sid sname rating age
S2
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
Slide No:L6-3
Relational Algebra
• Basic operations:
– Selection ( ) Selects a subset of rows from relation.
– Projection ( ) Deletes unwanted columns from relation.
– Cross-product ( ) Allows us to combine two relations.
– Set-difference ( __ ) Tuples in reln. 1, but not in reln. 2.
– Union ( ) Tuples in reln. 1 and in reln. 2.
• Additional operations:
– Intersection, join, division, renaming: Not essential, but (very!)
useful.
• Since each operation returns a relation, operations can be composed!
(Algebra is “closed”.)
Slide No:L6-4
Projection
Slide No:L6-5
Selection
sid sname rating age
• Selects rows that satisfy 28 yuppy 9 35.0
selection condition. 58 rusty 10 35.0
• No duplicates in result!
(Why?) rating 8(S2)
• Schema of result identical to
schema of (only) input
relation. sname rating
• Result relation can be the
input for another relational
yuppy 9
algebra operation! (Operator rusty 10
composition.)
Slide No:L6-6
Union, Intersection, Set-Difference
• All of these operations take two sid sname rating age
input relations, which must be
union-compatible: 22 dustin 7 45.0
– Same number of fields.
31 lubber 8 55.5
– `Corresponding’ fields have
the same type.
58 rusty 10 35.0
• What is the schema of result? 44 guppy 5 35.0
28 yuppy 9 35.0
S1 S2
sid sname rating age sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0 31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
S1 S2
S1 S2
Slide No:L6-7
Cross-Product
• Each row of S1 is paired with each row of R1.
• Result schema has one field per field of S1 and R1,
with field names `inherited’ if possible.
– Conflict: Both S1 and R1 have a field called sid.
Slide No:L6-8
Joins
R c S c ( R S)
• Condition Join:
(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
S1 R1
S1. sid R1. sid
Slide No:L6-9
Joins
S1 R1
sid
• Result schema similar to cross-product, but only one
copy of fields for which equality is specified.
• Natural Join: Equijoin on all common fields.
Slide No:L6-10
Division
Slide No:L6-14
Find names of sailors who’ve reserved a red boat
• Information about boat color only available in Boats; so need an
extra join:
Slide No:L6-15
Find sailors who’ve reserved a red or a green boat
• Can identify all red or green boats, then find sailors who’ve
reserved one of these boats:
(Tempboats, ( Boats))
color ' red ' color ' green '
sname(Tempboats Re serves Sailors)
Slide No:L6-16
Find sailors who’ve reserved a red and a green boat
• Previous approach won’t work! Must identify sailors who’ve
reserved red boats, sailors who’ve reserved green boats, then find
the intersection (note that sid is a key for Sailors):
Slide No:L6-17
Aggregate functons
For example : Find the total sum of salaries of all Female
Employees in an Organization.
•Query : G (SUM(salary)) (Female_employees)