CHAPTER 3

3. Food Microbiology
3.1. History and development of food
microbiology
 Food microbiology
 Encompasses the study of microorganisms, which
have both beneficial and harmful effects on the
quality, and safety of raw and processed foods
 Focuses on the general biology of the
microorganisms that are found in foods including:
 Their growth characteristics
 Identification, and
 Pathogenesis.
 Specifically, areas of interest which concern
food microbiology are:
 food poisoning,
 food spoilage, and
 food preservation.
 Early Food Preservation Louis Pasteur

 900 AD – “Food Poisoning” Recognized

 1795- Appert Developed Canning
 1854-1864- Food Microbiology Becomes A
Science
 The era prior to the establishment of bacteriology
as a science may be designated the pre-scientific
era.
 Pre-scientific era is divided into:
1) Food-gathering period
 From human origin up to 8,000 years ago.
 Foods were first cooked
2) Food-producing period
 About 8,000 -10,000 years ago
 Problems of spoilage and food poisoning were
encountered
 L. Pasteur was first person to understand the
presence and role of microorganisms in food
 In 1837, he showed that the souring of milk was
caused by microorganisms
 In about 1860 Pasteur used heat for the first
time to destroy undesirable organisms in wine
and beer.
 This process is now known as pasteurization.
 In 1765, L. Spallanzani showed that beef broth
that had been boiled for an hour and sealed
remained sterile
 Spallanzani performed this experiment to
disprove the theory of the spontaneous
generation of life.
 In 1837, Schwann showed that heated infusions
remained sterile in the presence of air
 Therefore, both of these men demonstrated the
idea of the heat preservation of foods
 Microorganisms in Food
 Factors affecting microbial growth in food
1. Composition
 Putrefaction proteolysis and anaerobic
breakdown of proteins, yielding foul-smelling
amine compounds.
2. pH
 Impacts make up of microbial community and
therefore types of chemical reactions that occur
when microbes grow in food.
3. Presence and availability of water
 In general, lower water activity inhibits
microbial growth
 Water activity lowered by:
 drying
 addition of salt or sugar
 Osmophilic microorganisms
 prefer high osmotic pressure
 Xerophilic microorganisms
 prefer low water activity
4. Physical structure
 Grinding and mixing increase surface area and
distribute microbes
 promotes microbial growth
 Outer skin of vegetables and fruits slows microbial
growth
5. Antimicrobial substances
 Coumarins – fruits and vegetables
 Lysozyme – cow’s milk and eggs
 Aldehydic and phenolic compounds-herbs and
spices, Allicin – garlic
 Polyphenols – green and black teas
6. Temperature
 lower temperatures retard microbial growth
7. Relative humidity
 higher levels promote microbial growth
8. Atmosphere
 oxygen promotes growth
9. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
 use of shrink wrap and vacuum technologies
to package food in controlled atmospheres
 3.2. Food spoilage
 Food spoilage is defined as damage or injury to food
rendering in unsuitable for human consumption.
 Food must be considered spoiled if it is contaminated
with:
 Pathogenic microorganisms or
 Various poisonous agents, such as pesticides, heavy
metals etc.
 In most cases there does not need to be an evident sign

of spoilage, the food might look normal and only after

eating it or by careful bacteriological and toxicological

investigation, one is able to realize the defect.

 Food decay or decomposition is implied when the term

spoiled is used.
 Storage life of some foods
Food product Storage life (days) at 21oC
Raw beef and mutton 1-2
Raw fish 1-2
Raw poultry 1-2
Dried salted or smoked 360 or more
meat and fish
Fresh fruits 1-7
Dried fruits 360 or more
Leafy vegetables 1-2
Root crops 1-20
Dried seeds 360 or more
  Causes of food spoilage
1. Growth and activity of microorganisms:
 Bacteria, yeasts and molds are microorganisms that cause
food spoilage.
 They produce various enzymes that decompose the
various constituents of food.
2. Enzyme activity:
 Action of enzymes found inherently in plant or animal
tissues start the decomposition of various food components
after death of plant or animal.
3. Chemical reactions:
 These are reactions that are not catalysed by enzymes.,e.g.
oxidation of fat
4. Vermin:
 Vermin includes weevils, ants, rats, cocroaches,
mice, birds, larval stages of some insects.
5. Physical changes:
 These include those changes caused by freezing,
burning, drying, pressure, etc.
 Microbial spoilage of food
 Bacteria, yeasts and molds are the major causes of food
spoilage.
 They produce various enzymes that decompose the
various constituents of food.
 Molds are the major causes of spoilage of foods with
reduced water activity e.g dry cereals and cereal
product
 Bacteria spoil foods with relatively high water activity
such as milk and their products.
  Sources of microorganisms in food
 The primary sources of microorganisms in food
include:

1. Soil and water

2. Plant and plant products

3. Food apparatus

4. Intestinal tract of man and animals

5. Food handlers

6. Animal hides and skins

7. Air and dust

 Factors affecting microbial growth in food

A) Intrinsic factors:

B) Extrinsic factors

A) Intrinsic factors:
 These are inherent in the food. They include:
 Hydrogen ion concentration (pH),
 Moisture content,
 Nutrient content of the food,
 Antimicrobial substances and

1. Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)
 Most bacteria grow best at neutral or weakly
alkaline pH usually between 6.8 and 7.5.
 Some bacteria can grow within a narrow pH range
of 4.5 and 9.0, e.g. Salmonella
 Other microorganisms especially yeasts and
molds and some bacteria grow within a wide pH
range, e.g.
 Molds grow between 1.5 to 11.0
 Yeasts grow between 1.5 and 8.5.
  pH values of some food products
Food type Range of pH values

Beef 5.1 - 6.2

Chicken 6.2 – 6.4

Milk 6.3 – 6.8

Cheese 4.9 - 5.9

Fish 6.6 - 6.8

Oyster 4.8 - 6.3

Fruits < 4.5 (most < 3.5)

Vegetables 3.0 – 6.1

 Acidophilic microorganisms
 Microorganisms that are able to grow in acid
environment.
 These microorganisms are able to grow at pH of
around 2.0.
 Yeasts and molds grow under acid conditions.
 Other microorganisms such as vibrio cholerae are
sensitive to acids and prefer alkaline conditions.
 Most bacteria are killed in strong acid or strong
alkaline environment except Mycobacteria.
 Minimum and maximum pH for growth of
some specific microorganism
Microorganism Minimum Maximum

Escherihia coli 4.4 9.0

Salmonella typhi 4.5 8.8

All bacteria 4.0 9.0

Molds 1.5 11.0

Yeast 1.5 8.5

 2. Moisture content
 The effect of moisture is in terms of water
activity:-
 The amount of free water in a food medium.
 The amount of free water is important for
growth of microorganisms.
 If there is lack of this free water
microorganisms will not grow.
 Water activity of some food products
Food Product Water activity
Raw meat and milk 0.99- 1.0

Luncheon meat 0.95

Boiled ham, sliced bacon 0.90

Dried grains 0.80

 3. Nutrients content of the food
 Microorganisms require proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids, water, energy, nitrogen, sulphur,
phosphorus, vitamins, and minerals for growth.
 Various foods have specific nutrients that help in
microbial growth.
 Foods such as milk, meat and eggs contain a
number of nutrients that are required by
microorganisms.
 These foods are hence susceptible to microbial
spoilage.
 4. Antimicrobial substances
 Antimicrobial substances in food inhibit microbial
growth.
 Various foods have inherent antimicrobial substances that
prevent (inhibit) microbial attack.
 Such inhibitors are like lactinin and anti-coliform factors
in milk and lysozyme in eggs.
 5. Biological structures
 Some foods have biological structures that prevent
microbial entry.
 For example, meat has fascia, skin and other
membranes that prevent microbial entry.
 Eggs have shell and inner membranes that prevent yolk
and egg white from infection.
 B) Extrinsic factors
 Are factors external to the food that affect microbial
growth.
 They include:
1. Temperature of storage
2. Presence and concentration of gases in the
environment.
3. Relative humidity of food storage environment.
 1. Temperature
 The growth of microorganisms is affected by the
envirnmental temperatures.
 Various microorganisms are able to grow at certain
temperatures and not others.
 Bacteria can therefore be divided into the following
groups depending upon their optimum temperature of
growth.
 (i). Psychrophilic microorganisms

 These grow best at about 20oC but also down to -10oC in

unfrozen media.
 Psychrophilic bacteria can cause food spoilage at low
temperatures.
 Several of the microorganisms found in the soil and
water belong to this group.
 (ii). Mesophilic bacteria

 These organisms grow between 25oC and 40oC, with an

optimum growth temperature close to 37oC
 Some such as Pseudomonas aeroginosa may grow at
even lower temperatures between 5 - 43oC
 None of the mesophilic bacteria are able to grow below
5oC or above 45oC.
 Most pathogenic bacteria belong to this group.
 (iii). Thermophilic bacteria.

 These grow at temperatures above 45oC.

 Often their optimum growth temperatures is between
50oC and 70oC.
 Growth of some bacteria occur at 80oC.
 Bacteria in this group are mainly spore formers and are
of importance in the food industry especially in processed
foods.
2. Concentration of gases in the environment
 This relates to the presence and concentration of
gases in the food environment.
 Various microorganisms require for growth,
either high oxygen tension (aerobic), low
oxygen tension(microaerobic) or absence of
oxygen (anaerobic).
 Some microorganisms may grow either in high
oxygen tension, or in the absence of oxygen
(facultative anaerobes).
 3. Relative humidity
 Relative humidity is the amount of moisture in the
atmosphere or food environment.
 Foods with low water activity placed at high humidity
environment take up water, increase their water activity and
get spoiled easily.
 For example, dry grains stored in a environment with high
humidity will take up water and undergo mold spoilage.
 Fig. Fruit and vegetable spoilage

12/13/2023 By: Anteneh G.

34
 BACTERIA

Microbial Spoilage

YEAST

MOLDS

12/13/2023 By: Anteneh G.

35
 3.3. Food preservation
 Is a process through which physical and /or chemical agents are
used to prevent microbial spoilage of food.

 Is aims at treating food in a manner to prolong its storage life.

 In food preservation, efforts are made to destroy organisms in the

food,or

 Increase the period taken by microorganism to adapt to the food

environment before they start to spoil the food.
 Two general principles are employed in food preservation.

1. Inhibition priciple
 1. Inhibition principle
 Food preservation is achieved by inhibition of growth and
multiplication of microorganisms.
 Can be achieved by any of the following methods:

a) Reduction of water activity e.g. By drying and salting

b) Reduction in pH e.g. by fermentation and addition of

acids.

c) Use of preservatives, e.g. sodium benzoate

d) Use of low temperatures (chilling or freezing)

e) Smoking – which has a drying and preservative effect

 Preservation of food by inhibition methods does not
necessarily imply the destruction of organisms.
 On removal of the inhibiting influence, the food will
undergo spoilage as the microorganism present will
grow and multiply to cause spoilage.
 a) Food preservation by lowering pH

 Many food products can be preserved by lowering pH

so that the growth of spoilage and pathogenic bacteria
is prevented.

 The lowering of pH can be achieved by addition of

acids and fermentation

 Fermentation is the breakdown of carbohydrates under

anaerobic conditions into alcohol or lactic acid and
carbon dioxide.
b) Food preservation by lowering water
activity
 Lowering of water activity can be achieved by:
 Addition of high content of salt:
o Sodium chloride and sometimes nitrats and nitrites

 Addition of high content of sugar

 Drying: sun/air drying; electrical drying or freeze
drying.
 c) The salting procedure
 The salting procedure can be performed in four ways:

1. Dry cure: in which the meat or fish is rubbed with salt

2. Pickling: The products are immersed in pickle of brine,
usually containing about 15% salt.
3. The injection cure: concentrated salt injected to muscles
4. Direct addition method
d) Preservation of food by addition of high
content of sugar
 Monosaccharides such as glucose(dextrose) and fructose are
more effective in reducing the water activity than disaccharides
like sucrose.
 Thermophiles are more susceptible to the action of sugar than
than other bacteria.
 Osmophilic yeasts are able to tolerate very high concentrations of
sugar and cause food spoilage.
e) Food preservation by use of low temperatures
 Two methods are employed to arrest microbial growth
and multiplication.
 These are chilling (cold storage) and freezing.

 Chilling is keeping food at temperatures between 0-15 oC.

 The commom chilling temperatures ranges between 4-

5oC.
 Freezing is keeping food at temperatures between 0 oC
and -35oC.
  Effect of low temperatures

 Low temperatures are used

 To retard chemical reactions and actions of food enzymes
 To slow down or stop the growth and activity of
microorganisms in the food.
 A low enough temperature will prevent growth of any
microorganisms.
 Spores are not usually injured at all by freezing. However,
most parasites are killed by freezing.
f) Smoke
 In preserving foods such as meats and fish with smoke,
the preservative action generally comes from a
combination of factors including:
− Smoke contains preservative chemicals such as
small amounts of formaldehyde and other materials
from the burning of wood.
− Smoke generally is associated with heat which
helps kill microorganisms.
− This heat also tends to dry out the food, which
further
contributes to preservation.
 Smoking over a fire may be quite effective in preserving
certain foods
 2. Killing principle
 In this principle,
 Spoilage microorganisms are destroyed (Killed) in the
food, and
 The food protected against subsequent contamination by
being enclosed in an air tight container.
Methods employed to achieve the killing
principle
1. Heat treatment: through pasteurization or sterilization

2. Irradiation with either ionizing or electromagnetic

radiation e.g gamma rays, cobalt 60 radioactive particles.
Radiations kill microorganisms by destruction of DNA and
by creating toxic reactive compounds in a medium and in
microbial cells

3. Use of gases: by use of ethylene oxide or ozone. The gases

destroy both vegetative cells and spores.
 1. Heat treatment
a) Pasteurization
 Is the process of heat treatment at specific temperatures and
times.
 Is aimed at destroying all pathogenic microorganisms without
affection the nutritive value of the food.
 Three methods of pasteurization

a. Low temperature long time (63oC for 30 min)

b. High temperature short time (72oC for 15 seconds)

c. Flash method (80oC for 1-2 seconds)

 b) Sterilization
 Is the use of physical or chemical means to
destroy all microorganisms that are present in the
food.
 Sterilization can be achieved by:

a. Heating at high temperatures, e.g. 100-140oC

b. Irradiation:Irradiation kills bacteria, spores,

and insects as well as inactivates enzymes.
2. Radiation
 Microorganisms are inactivated to various degrees by
different kinds of radiation.
 X-Rays
 microwaves
 ultraviolet light, and
 ionizing radiations
 The effectiveness of each type differs and each imparts
different changes in foods.
 Today, foods usually are irradiated with ionizing
radiation, obtained from radioactive isotopes or
electron accelerators.
3. Atmosphere Composition
 The different requirements of microorganisms for
oxygen and some of the means for removing air
and oxygen already have been cited.
 To control organisms that require it, air is removed;
 For organisms that cannot tolerate it, air is provided
 It is often fairly easy to exclude air from aerobes
such as molds.
 Wax coating of cheeses or oxygen impermeable
skin-tight plastic films can be quite effective.
3.5. Food borne diseases
 Food borne diseases (FBD)

 Are acute illnesses associated with the recent consumption

of food.
 The food involved is usually contaminated with a disease
pathogen or toxicant.
 Such food contains enough pathogens or toxicant necessary
to make a person sick.
 Food borne diseases are classified into:

1. Food borne infections and

 A. Food borne infections
 are caused by the entrance of pathogenic
microorganisms contaminating food into the body,
and the reaction of the body tissues to their presence.
 These can either be fungal, bacterial, viral or
parasitic
 Food borne infections tend to have long incubation
periods and are usually characterized by fever.
i) Bacterial food borne infections include Cholera,
salmonellosis, typhoid fever, shigellosis, Yersiniosis
Escherichia coli infection Campylo bacteriosis,
Vibrio parahemolyticus and Listeriosis
ii) Mycotic food borne infections include Candida
spp., Sporothrix spp., Wangiella spp. etc),
iii) Viral food borne infections include hepatitis A ,
Norwak virus and poliomyelitis virus.
 Common Food born infections
1. Norwalk-like Viruses
 Norovirus, Caliciviridae family
 They are an important cause of sporadic gastrointestinal disease
outbreaks throughout the world.
 It is considered the most common foodborne infectious agent and an
estimated 23 million cases occur each year.
 Sources

 Person-to-person :
 Shed in human feces (up to 2weeks), vomitus.
 Outbreaks in daycares, nursing homes, cruise ships
 Contaminated raw shellfish.
 2. Campylobacter jejuni
 Leading cause of bacterial diarrhea.

 It is considered the leading bacterial cause of foodborne related

diarrhea affecting 2.4 million people each year (5-14% of all diarrheal
illnesses worldwide). Usually these are children under the age of 5 and
young adults (15-29 years of age).
 Very few deaths are caused by this organism.

 Recently Guillain-Barré Syndrome has been associated with a small

number of Campylobacter cases.
 This syndrome is the leading cause of acute paralysis and develops 2-4
weeks after a Campylobacter infection (after diarrheal signs disappear).
 3. Campylobacteriosis
 It is caused primarily by Campylobacter jejuni, but also C.
fetus and C. coli.
 Sources
• Raw or undercooked poultry
• Non-chlorinated water
• Raw milk
• Infected animal or human feces
 Poultry, cattle, puppies, kittens, pet birds
Clinical signs
• Diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever, nausea
• Duration: 2-5 days
 4. Salmonellosis
 Salmonella is a gram negative bacteria with many serotypes
that cause foodborne related illnesses. The ones we most
commonly associated with human foodborne illness are S.
typhimurium and S. enteritidis
 They account for about 41% of all human cases reported
 causes an estimated 1.4 million reported cases annually with
580 deaths
Sources
Raw poultry and eggs
Raw milk
Raw beef
Unwashed fruit
Reptile pets: Snakes, turtles, lizards
Signs
Onset: 12-72 hours
Diarrhea, fever, cramps
Duration: 4-7 days
5. E. coli O157:H7
 Escherichia coli is another major pathogen of foodborne related illnesses.
 Harmless strains of E. coli are found in nature, including the intestinal
tracts of humans and animals.
 Diarrheal disease is caused by several different strains of harmful E. coli.
 The most dangerous type is enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC).
 It gets its name because it can cause bloody diarrhea and can lead to
kidney failure in children or immuno compromised persons.
 E. coli O157:H7 is the most common EHEC and its enterohemorrhagic
toxin is what actually causes the disease
 6. Botulism
 Botulism is caused by a neurotoxin from Clostridium botulinum
 This toxin causes flaccid paralysis and cranial nerve deficits,
and can lead to death.
 The most common sources are home-canned foods, fermented
meats and honey
 Signs
• Double vision, drooping eyelids, difficulty speaking and swallowing

• Onset: 18-36 hours

 7. Shigellosis
 Shigellosis is also known as bacillary dysentery
 Most cases are caused by Shigella sonnei. However, S.
dysenteriae, S. flexneri and S. boydii can also cause foodborne
related illnesses.
 Sources:
Human fecal contamination of food, beverages, vegetables, water
 Signs:
Watery or bloody diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, cramps, fever
Onset: 2 days
Duration: 5-7 days
2) Food intoxication
 Food intoxication results when a person eats food
containing toxins that cause illness.
 Toxins are produced by:
 harmful microorganisms
 the result of a chemical contamination
 Or are naturally part of a plant or sea-food
 What cause illness is the toxins, not bacteria.
 The symptoms of intoxication vary from bouts of
vomiting and diarrhea to severely disrupted
muscle function, as with botulism.
  Prevention and Control
HACCP (The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point )

 A systematic approach to the identification, evaluation, and control

of food safety hazards
 system is based on assessing the natural hazards or risks in a particular
product or process and designing a system to control them.
 Food producers and processors have implemented the HACCP
program in their operation to reduce the possibility of food-borne
pathogens.
 HACCP is a system which looks for and prevents potential
problems before they happen.
3.6. Micro-organism Important in Food
Microbiology
• These organisms include bacteria, yeasts and molds.
1. Yeast
• Unlike some molds and mushrooms, the yeasts do not
produce toxic secondary metabolites.
• Yeasts can grow with or without oxygen (facultative)
• They often colonize foods with a high sugar or salt content
and contribute to spoilage of maple syrup, pickles, and
sauerkraut.
• Fruits and juices with a low pH are another target, and there
are some yeasts that grow on the surfaces of meat and
cheese.
 There are four main groups of spoilage yeasts:
1) Zygosaccharomyces and related genera
 tolerate high sugar and high salt concentrations
 are the usual spoilage organisms in foods such
as honey, dried fruit, jams and soy sauce.
 They usually grow slowly, producing off-odors
and flavors and carbon dioxide that may cause
food containers to swell and burst.
2) Debaryomyces hansenii
 can grow at high salt concentrations.
 This group also includes the most important
spoilage organisms in salad dressings.
3) Saccharomyces spp.
 are best known for their role in production of
bread and wine
 Some strains also spoil wines and other alcoholic
beverages by producing gassiness, turbidity and
off-flavors
 Some species grow on fruits, including yogurt
containing fruit, and some are resistant to heat
processing
4) Candida and related genera
 are a heterogeneous group of yeasts, some of
which also cause human infections.
 They are involved in spoilage of fruits, some
vegetables and dairy products.
 Dekkera/Brettanomyces are principally involved
in spoilage of fermented foods
 These includes alcoholic beverages and some
dairy products.
 They can produce volatile phenolic compounds
responsible for off-flavors
 2. Molds
 Molds are very important for recycling dead plant and
animal remains in nature but also attack a wide variety of
foods and other materials useful to humans.
 They are well adapted for growth on and through solid
substrates, generally produce airborne spores, and
require oxygen for their metabolic processes.
 Most molds grow at a pH range of 3 to 8 and some can
grow at very low water activity levels on dried foods.
 Spores can tolerate harsh environmental conditions but
most are sensitive to heat treatment.
 An exception is Byssochlammys, whose spores have a D
value of 1–12 minutes at 90ºC.
• Different mold species have different optimal
growth temperatures, with some able to grow in
refrigerators.
• They have a diverse secondary metabolism
producing a number of toxic and carcinogenic
mycotoxins.
• Some spoilage molds are toxigenic while others are
not
• Spoilage molds can be categorized into four main
groups:
1) Zygomycetes are considered relatively primitive
fungi but are widespread in nature, growing rapidly
on simple carbon sources in soil and plant debris,
• Generally they require high water activities for
growth and are notorious for causing rots in a
variety of stored fruits and vegetables
• Some common bread molds also are zygomycetes.
• Some zygomycetes are also utilized for production
of fermented soy products, enzymes, and organic
chemicals.
• The most common spoilage species are Mucor and
Rhizopus.
• Zygomycetes are not known for producing
mycotoxins but there are some reports of toxic
compounds produced by a few species.
2) Penicillium and related genera are present in soils
and plant debris
• They tend to dominate spoilage in temperate
regions.
• They are distinguished by their reproductive
structures that produce chains of conidia.
• Although they can be useful to humans in producing
antibiotics and blue cheese
• Many species are important spoilage organisms,
• Some produce potent mycotoxins (patulin,
ochratoxin, citreoviridin, penitrem).
• Penicillium spp. cause visible rots on citrus, pear,
and apple fruits and cause enormous losses in these
crops.
• They also spoil other fruits and vegetables,
including cereals.
• Some species can attack refrigerated and
processed foods such as jams and margarine.
• A related genus, Byssochlamys, is the most
important organism causing spoilage of pasteurized
juices because of the high heat resistance of its
spores.
3) Aspergillus and related molds generally grow faster
and are more resistant to high temperatures and
low water activity than Penicillium spp. and tend
to dominate spoilage in warmer climates.
• Many aspergilla produce mycotoxins: aflatoxins,
ochratoxin, territrems, cyclopiazonic acid.
• Aspergilli spoil a wide variety of food and nonfood
items (paper, leather, etc.) but are probably best
known for spoilage of grains, dried beans, peanuts,
tree nuts, and some spices.
4) Other molds, belonging to several genera, have
been isolated from spoiled food.
• These generally are not major causes of spoilage
but can be a problem for some foods.
• Fusarium spp. cause plant diseases and produce
several important mycotoxins but are not
important spoilage organisms.
• However, their mycotoxins may be present in
harvested grains and pose a health risk.
3. Important Bacteria Group in Food
 Spore-forming bacteria
 are usually associated with spoilage of heat-treated
foods because their spores can survive high
processing temperatures.
 These Gram-positive bacteria may be strict
anaerobes or facultative.
 Some spore-formers are thermophilic, preferring
growth at high temperatures.
 Some anaerobic thermophiles produce H 2S and
others produce H and CO2 during growth on
canned/ hermetically sealed foods kept at high
 Other thermophiles (Bacillus and Geobacillus spp.)
cause a flat sour spoilage of high or low pH
canned foods with little or no gas production
 Mesophilic anaerobes, growing at ambient
temperatures, cause:
 several types of spoilage of vegetables (Bacillus spp.)
 putrefaction of canned products
 early blowing of cheeses
 butyric acid production in canned vegetables and
fruits (Clostridium spp.)
 "medicinal" flavors in canned low-acid foods
(Alicyclobacillus).
 Psychrotolerant sporeformers produce:
− gas and sickly odors in chilled meats and brine-
cured hams (Clostridium spp.)
− off-odors and gas in vacuum-packed, chilled foods
and milk (Bacillus spp.).
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are a group of Gram-
positive bacteria, including species of:
− Lactobacillus, Pediococcus,
− Leuconostoc and
− Oenococcus,
• Some of which are useful in producing fermented
foods such as yogurt and pickles.
 However, under low oxygen, low temperature,
and acidic conditions, these bacteria become the
predominant spoilage organisms on a variety of
foods.
 Undesirable changes caused by LAB include:
− greening of meat and
− gas formation in cheeses (blowing), pickles (bloater
damage), and canned or packaged meat and
vegetables.
− off-flavors in wine, meats, milk, or juices
 LAB may also produce large amounts of
exopolysaccharide that causes slime on meats and
ropy spoilage in some beverages.
Pseudomonas and related genera
 are aerobic, gram-negative soil bacteria
 Some of which can degrade a wide variety of
unusual compounds.
 They generally require a high water activity for
growth and are inhibited by pH values less than 5.4
 Some species are psychrophilic,while other are
adapted for growth at warmer, ambient
temperatures.
 The species of Pseudomonas, Shewanella
putrefaciens, and Xanthomonas campestris are
the main food spoilage organisms in this group.
• Soft rots of plant-derived foods occur when pectins
are degraded by pectic lyase enzymes secreted by
X. campestris, P. fluorescens and P. viridiflava.
• These two species of Pseudomonas cause nearly
half of post-harvest rot in fresh fruits and
vegetables stored at cold temperatures.
• P. fluorescens, P. fragi, P. lundensis, and S.
putrefaciens cause spoilage of animal-derived
foods (meat, fish, milk)
• Some strains are adapted for growth at cold
temperatures and spoil these foods in the
refrigerator.
 Enterobacteriaceae
 are gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic bacteria
include a large number of spoilage organisms.
 These bacteria are widespread in nature in soil, on
plant surfaces and in digestive tracts of animals and
are therefore present in many foods.
 Erwinia carotovora
 causes soft rot of vegetables
 Biogenic amines are produced in meat and fish by
several members of this group while others produce
off-odors or colors in beer, bacon and other cured
meats, cheeses, cole slaw, and shell eggs.
 Temperature, salt concentration, and pH are the
most important factors determining these microbes
spoil foods.
 Gram-negative bacteria, including pseudomonads
and enterobacteriaceae, secrete acyl homoserine
lactones (AHL) to regulate the expression of
certain genes
 These (AHL) quorum-sensing signals may regulate
proteolytic enzyme production and iron chelation
during spoilage of some foods
 Other bacteria are associated with spoilage of
chilled, high protein foods such as meat, fish, and
dairy products.
 They may not be the predominant spoilage organisms
 Most species are aerobic although some grow at low
oxygen levels and may survive vacuum packaging
 Acinetobacter and Psychrobacter, are predominant
bacteria on poultry carcasses on the processing line
 Acinetobacter grows at a pH as low as 3.3 and has been
detected in spoiled soft drinks.
 These two genera do not produce extracellular lipases,
hydrogen sulfide, or trimethylamine (fishy odor)
 Alcaligenes is a potential contaminant of dairy products
and meat
 These bacteria occur naturally in the digestive tract of
some animals and also in soil and water.
 Flavobacterium
 is found widely in the environment and in chilled foods,
particularly dairy products, fish, and meat.
 It uses both lipases and proteases to produce disagreeable
odors in butter, margarine, cheese, cream, and other
products
 Moraxella and Photobacterium are important constituents of
the microflora on the surface of fish.
 Photobacterium can grow and produce trimethylamine in
ice-stored, vacuum-packaged fish.
 Brochothrix
 Has been isolated from meat, fish, dairy products and
frozen vegetables.
 During spoilage, it produces odors described as sour,
musty, and sweaty