Single Final State for NFAs

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Any NFA can be converted

to an equivalent NFA

with a single final state

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 Example
a
NFA
a b

a Equivalent NFA

a b

b 

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 In General
NFA

Equivalent NFA

 Single
 final state
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 Extreme Case

NFA without final state

Add a final state

Without transitions

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 Properties of
Regular Languages

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For regular languages L1 and L2
we will prove that:

Union: L1  L2
Concatenation: L1L2
Star: L1 * Are regular
Languages
Reversal: R
L1
Complement: L1
Intersection: L1  L2
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We say: Regular languages are closed under

Union: L1  L2
Concatenation: L1L2
Star: L1 *
Reversal: R
L1
Complement: L1
Intersection: L1  L2
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Regular language L1 Regular language L2

LM1   L1 LM 2   L2

NFA M1 NFA M2

Single final state Single final state

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 Example
M1
n0
a
n
L1  {a b} b

M2
a
L2  ba b

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 Union
NFA for L1  L2
M1

 

 M2 

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 Example
n
NFA for L1  L2  {a b}  {ba}
n
L1  {a b}
a
b
 

 L2  {ba} 
b a
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 Concatenation

NFA for L1L2

M1 M2
 

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 Example

n n
NFA for L1L2  {a b}{ba}  {a bba}

n
L1  {a b}
a
L2  {ba}
b  b a 

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 Star Operation
NFA for L1 *

  L1 *
M1
 


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 Example

n w  w1w2  wk
NFA for L1*  {a b} * wi  L1

n
L1  {a b}
a
 b 


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 Reverse
R
NFA for L1
L1 M1 M1

1. Reverse all transitions

2. Make initial state final state

and vice versa
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 Example
M1
a
n
L1  {a b} b

M1
a
R n
L1  {ba } b

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 Complement

L1 M1 L1 M1

1. Take the DFA that accepts L1

2. Make final states non-final,

and vice-versa
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 Example
M1
a a, b
n b a, b
L1  {a b}

M1
n a a, b
L1  {a, b} * {a b}
b a, b

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 Intersection
DeMorgan’s Law: L1  L2  L1  L2
L1 , L2 regular
L1 , L2 regular
L1  L2 regular
L1  L2 regular
L1  L2 regular
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 Example

n
L1  {a b} regular
L1  L2  {ab}
L2  {ab, ba} regular regular

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Regular Expressions

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 Regular Expressions
Regular expressions
describe regular languages

Example: (a  b  c) *

describes the language

a, bc*   , a, bc, aa, abc, bca,...

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 Recursive Definition
Primitive regular expressions: ,  , 

Given regular expressions r1 and r2

r1  r2
r1  r2
Are regular expressions
r1 *
r1 
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 Examples

A regular expression: a  b  c * (c  )

Not a regular expression: a  b  

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 Languages of Regular Expressions

Lr  : language of regular expression r

Example
L(a  b  c) *   , a, bc, aa, abc, bca,...

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 Definition

For primitive regular expressions:

L   

L    

La   a
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 Definition (continued)

For regular expressions r1 and r2

Lr1  r2   Lr1   Lr2 

Lr1  r2   Lr1  Lr2 

Lr1 *  Lr1 *

Lr1   Lr1 
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 Example
Regular expression: a  b   a *
La  b   a *  La  b  La *
 La  b  La *
 La   Lb  La *
 a b a*
 a, b , a, aa, aaa,...
 a, aa, aaa,..., b, ba, baa,...
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 Example

Regular expression r  a  bb * a  b 

Lr   a, bb, aa, abb, ba, bbb,...

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 Example

Regular expression r  aa * bb * b

Lr   {a b
2n 2m
b : n, m  0}

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 Example

Regular expression r  (0  1) * 00 (0  1) *

L(r ) = { all strings with at least

One or two consecutive 0 }

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 Example

Regular expression r  (1  01) * (0   )

L(r ) = { all strings without

two consecutive 0 }

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 Equivalent Regular Expressions

Definition:

Regular expressions r1 and r2

are equivalent if L(r1 )  L(r2 )

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Regular Expressions
and
Regular Languages

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 Theorem

Languages
Generated by
Regular Expressions
 Regular
Languages

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 Theorem - Part 1

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Expressions

1. For any regular expression r

the language L(r ) is regular

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 Theorem - Part 2

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Expressions

2. For any regular language L there is

a regular expression r with L( r )  L

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 Proof - Part 1

1. For any regular expression r

the language L(r ) is regular

Proof by induction on the size of r

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 Induction Basis
Primitive Regular Expressions: ,  , 
NFAs

L( M1 )    L()

regular
L( M 2 )  {}  L( )
languages
a
L( M 3 )  {a}  L(a )

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 Inductive Hypothesis

Assume
for regular expressions r1 and r2
that
L(r1 ) and L(r2 ) are regular languages

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 Inductive Step
We will prove:
Lr1  r2 

Lr1  r2 
Are regular
Languages
Lr1 *

Lr1 
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By definition of regular expressions:

Lr1  r2   Lr1   Lr2 

Lr1  r2   Lr1  Lr2 

Lr1 *  Lr1 *

Lr1   Lr1 
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By inductive hypothesis we know:
L(r1 ) and L(r2 ) are regular languages

We also know:
Regular languages are closed under:
Union Lr1   Lr2 
Concatenation Lr1  Lr2 
Star Lr1 *
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Therefore:

Lr1  r2   Lr1   Lr2 

Are regular
Lr1  r2   Lr1  Lr2 
languages

Lr1 *  Lr1 *

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And trivially:

L((r1 )) is a regular language

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 Proof – Part 2

2. For any regular language L there is

a regular expression r with L( r )  L

Proof by construction of regular expression

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Since L is regular take the
NFA M that accepts it

L( M )  L

Single final state

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From M construct the equivalent
Generalized Transition Graph
in which transition labels are regular expressions

Example:
M
a c a c
a, b ab
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 b b
Another Example:
a
q0 q1 a, b q2
b

b b
a
q0 q1 a  b q2
b
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 b b
Reducing the states:
a
q0 q1 a  b q2
b

bb * a b

q0 bb * (a  b) q2
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Resulting Regular Expression:

bb * a b

q0 bb * (a  b) q2

r  (bb * a ) * bb * (a  b)b *

L(r )  L( M )  L
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 In General
Removing states: g e
d c
qi q qj
a b
f
ae * d g  ce * d ce * b
ce * d
qi f  ae * b qj
ae * b
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Reducing NFAs by equivalences – example

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Reducing NFAs by equivalences – example

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The final transition
graph: r1 r4
r3
q0 qf
r2

The resulting regular expression:

r  ( r1  r2 r4 * r3 ) * r2 r4 *
r  r1 * r2 (r4  r3 r1 * r2 ) *
L(r )  L( M )  L
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