ELE-601 Industrial Electronics

Lecture 10 – DC Motors and Drives

Dr. Arslan Dawood Butt

 CLO 2 -
Section 1
CONSTRUCTION

Cutaway view of a dc motor

CONSTRUCTION ….contnd

Stator with visible poles

CONSTRUCTION ….contnd

Rotor of a dc motor.
CONSTRUCTION ….contnd

General arrangement of a dc machine

 CONSTRUCTION ….contnd
• The stator of the dc motor has
poles, which are excited by dc
current to produce magnetic
fields.
• In the neutral zone, in the middle
between the poles, commutating
poles are placed to reduce
sparking of the commutator. The
commutating poles are supplied
by dc current.
CONSTRUCTION
 CONSTRUCTION ….contnd
• The poles are mounted on
an iron core that provides a
closed magnetic circuit.
• The motor housing supports
the iron core, the brushes
and the bearings.
• The rotor has a ring-shaped
laminated iron core with
slots.
• Coils with several turns are
placed in the slots. The
distance between the two
legs of the coil is about 180
electric degrees.
 CONSTRUCTION ….contnd
• The coils are connected in series
through the commutator
segments.
• The ends of each coil are
connected to a commutator
segment.
• The commutator consists of
insulated copper segments
mounted on an insulated tube.
• Two brushes are pressed to the
commutator to permit current
flow.
• The brushes are placed in the
neutral zone, where the magnetic
field is close to zero, to reduce
arcing.
CONSTRUCTION ….contnd

Commutator of a dc motor
 CONSTRUCTION
• The commutator switches the
current from one rotor coil to the
adjacent coil.
• The switching requires the
interruption of the coil current.
• The sudden interruption of an
inductive current generates high
voltages.
• The high voltage produces
flashover and arcing between the
commutator segment and the
brush.
DC Motor Operation
DC Motor Operation : Current
DC Motor Operation : Force
DC Motor Operation : Magnetic Field
DC Motor Operation
DC Motor Operation
 Basic principle of operation
• The generated voltage of a DC machines having (p) poles and (Z)
conductors on the armature with (a) parallel path between brushes as
below :
pZ
EA   K 
2a
where K = pZ /(2πa) = machine constant

• The mechanical torque which also equal to electromagnetic torque, is

found as follows:
EAI A
e m   K I A

In the case of a generator:
m is the input mechanical torque, (converted to electrical power)
For the motor:
e is developed electromagnetic torque, (drive the mechanical load)
 Equivalent Circuit

The brush
voltage
drop
RA

External variable resistor

used to control the
amount of current in the Armature circuit (entire
field circuit rotor structure)

Field Coils

Equivalent circuit of dc motor

Because a dc motor is the same physical machine as a dc generator, its
equivalent circuit is exactly the same as generator except for the direction of
current flow.
 Simplified Equivalent Circuit

Simplified equivalent circuit of dc motor

• The brush drop voltage (Vbrush ) is often only a very tiny fraction of the
generated voltage in the machine – Neglected or included in RA.
• Internal resistance of the field coils is sometimes lumped together
with the variable resistor and called RF
 Separately excited DC motor

VF
IF 
RF

IL  I A

VT  E A  I A R A
Separately excited motor is a motor whose
field current is supplied from a separate
constant-voltage power supply.
 Shunt DC motor

VT
IF 
RF

IL  IA  IF

VT  E A  I A R A
A shunt dc motor is a motor whose field
circuit get its power directly across the
armature terminals of the motor.
 Shunt DC Motor : Terminal Characteristics

• Consider the DC shunt motor. From the Kirchoff’s Law

VT  E A  I A R A
• Induced Voltage
E A  K 

• Substituting the expression for induced

voltage between VT and EA.

VT  K  I A RA
• Since, then current IA can be expressed
as
 ind  ind
IA  VT  K  RA
K K
 • Finally, solving for the motor's speed yield

VT RA
  
2 ind
K ( K  )
This equation is a straight line with a negative slope.

Torque-speed characteristic of a shunt or separately excited dc motor

 Shunt DC Motor : Terminal Characteristic
• Affect of Armature Reaction (AR) will reduce flux as the load increase
(ind also increase), so it will increase motor speed ().
If the motor has compensating winding, the flux () will be constant.

VT RA
  
2 ind
K ( K  )

Torque-speed characteristic of a motor with armature reaction

present.
 Shunt DC Motor : Speed Control
1 : Changing The Field Resistance (flux affected)
 V 
1. Increasing RF causes IF   T  to decrease.
 RF  
2. Deceasing IF decreases . (graph flux vs current)

3. Decreasing  lowers E A
 K   

 VT  E A  
4. Decreasing EA increases IA   
 RA 
5. Increasing IA increases  ind  K  I A 
with the change in IA dominant over the change in flux ().

6. Increasing τind makes  ind  load and the speed ω increases.

 Shunt DC Motor : Speed Control
7. Increasing speed to increases EA = K again.

8. Increasing EA decreases IA.

9. Decreasing IA decreases until  ind   load at a higher speed ω

Decreasing RF would reverse the whole process, and the speed of the
motor would drop.

The effect of field

resistance speed control on
a shunt motor’s torque
speed characteristic: over
the motor’s normal
operating range
 Shunt DC Motor : Speed Control
2: Changing The Armature Voltage

Armature voltage
control of a shunt (or
separately excited) dc
motor.

1. An increase in VA increases IA [= (VA  – EA)/RA]

2. Increasing IA increases  ind (  KI A )
3. Increasing τind makes  ind  load increasing ω.
4. Increasing ω increases EA (=Kω  )
 Shunt DC Motor : Speed Control
5. Increasing EA decreases IA [ = (VA – EA)/RA]

6. Decreasing IA decreases τind until  ind   load at a higher ω.

The effect of armature voltage

speed control on a shunt
motor’s torque speed
characteristic

The speed control is shifted by

this method, but the slope of
the curve remains constant
 Shunt DC Motor : Speed Control
3 : Inserting Resistor in Series with Armature Circuit
Add resistor in
series with RA

The effect of armature resistance

Equivalent circuit of DC speed control on a shunt motor’s
shunt motor torque – speed characteristic

Additional resistor in series will drastically increase the slope of the motor’s
characteristic, making it operate more slowly if loaded
 Shunt DC Motor : Speed Control

VT RA
   ind
K ( K  ) 2

The above equation shows if RA increase, speed will decrease

This method is very wasteful method of speed control, since the losses in
the inserted resistor is very large. For this it is rarely used.
 Series DC Motor
Series DC Motor: DC motor whose field windings consists of relatively few turns
connected in series with armature circuit

Equivalent circuit of a
series DC motor.
The Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation for this motor

VT  E A  I A ( R A  RS )
 Series DC Motor : Induced Torque
• The induced or developed torque is given by  ind  KI A
• The flux in this motor is directly proportional to its armature current.
Therefore, the flux in the motor can be given by

  cI A
where c is a constant of proportionality. The induced torque in this machine
is thus given by

ind  KI  KcI

A A
2

This equation shows, torque in the motor is proportional to the square of

armature current. So, series motor give more torque per ampere than any
other dc motor, therefore it is used in applications requiring very high torque,
e.g. starter motors in cars, elevator motors, and tractor motors in locomotives.
 Series DC Motor : Terminal Characteristic
• To determine the terminal characteristic of a series dc motor, analysis will be
based on the assumption of a linear magnetization curve, and the effects of
saturation will be considered in a graphical analysis

• The assumption of a linear magnetization curve implies that the flux in the motor
given by :
  cI A
• The derivation of a series motor’s torque-speed characteristic starts with Kirchhoff’s
voltage law:
VT  E A  I A ( R A  RS )

From the equation;  ind  KI A  KcI A 2 the armature current can be
expressed as:
 ind
IA 
Kc
• Also, EA = K, substituting these expression yields:

 ind
VT  K  ( R A  RS )
Kc

We know IA  ;
c
• Substituting the equations so the induced torque equation
can be written as
K 2
 ind  KcIA 2
 
c
Therefore, the flux in the series motor can be written as:
c
  ind
K
• Substituting the previous equation for VT yields:

c 
VT  K  ind   ind ( RA  RS )
K Kc

VT 1 RA  RS
 
Kc  ind Kc

• Disadvantage of series motor can be seen immediately from

this equation. When the torque on this motor goes to zero, its
speed goes to infinity.
In practice, the torque can never go entirely to zero, because of
the mechanical, core and stray losses that must be overcome.
• However, if no other load is connected to the motor, it can turn
fast enough to seriously damage itself.
NEVER completely unload a series motor, and NEVER connect
one to a load by a belt or other mechanism that could break.

Figure : The ideal torque- speed characteristic of a series dc motor

 Series DC Motor : Speed Control
Method of controlling the speed in series motor :
1. Change the terminal voltage of the motor. If the terminal voltage is increased,
the speed also increased, resulting in a higher speed for any given torque.

VT 1 R A  RS
 
Kc  ind Kc

2. By the insertion of a series resistor into the motor circuit, but this technique
is very wasteful of power and is used only for intermittent period during the
start-up of some motor.
 Compounded DC Motor
• In long shunt compound dc motor, the series field is connected in
series with armature and the combination is in parallel with the shunt
field.

•In the short shunt field compound dc motor, the shunt field is in
parallel with armature and the combination is connected in series with
the series field.

• If the magnetic fluxes produced by both series field and shunt field
windings are in same direction, that is, additive, the dc motor is
cumulative compound. If the magnetic fluxes are in opposite, the dc
motor is differential compound.
 Compounded DC Motor

• The Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation for a compound dc motor is:

VT  E A  I A ( R A  RS )

• The currents in the compounded motor are related by :

IA  IL  IF V
IF  T
RF
• The net magnetomotive force given by
F net = F F ± FSE - FAR

FF = magnetmotive force (shunt field)

FSE = magnetomotive force (series field)
FAR = magnetomotive force (armature reaction)
The effective shunt field current in the compounded DC motor
given by:

N SE FAR
I  IF 
*
F IA 
NF NF
NSE = winding turn per pole on series
winding
NF = winding turn per pole on shunt
winding
The positive (+) sign is for cumulatively compound motor
The negative (-) sign is for differentially compound motor
 Cumulatively Compounded DC Motor:
Torque Speed Characteristic
• Has a higher starting torque than a shunt motor (whose flux is constant)
but a lower starting torque than a series motor (whose entire flux is proportional
to armature current).

• It combines the best features of both the shunt and the series motors.
Like a series motor, it has extra torque for starting; like a shunt motor,
it does not over speed at no load.
• At light loads, the series field has a very small effect, so the motor behaves
approximately as a shunt dc motor.

• As the load gets very large, the series flux becomes quite important and the
torque speed curve begins to look like a series motor’s characteristic.

• A comparison of these torque speed characteristics of each types is shown in next

slide.
Fig (a) The torque-speed characteristic of a cumulatively compounded dc
motor compared to series and shunt motors with the same full-load
rating.
Fig. (b) The torque-speed characteristic of a cumulatively compounded
dc motor compared to a shunt motor with the same no-load speed.
 Cumulatively Compounded DC Motor :
Speed
The techniques available Control
for control of speed in a
cumulatively compounded dc motor are the same as those
available for a shunt motor:

1. Change the field resistance, RF

2. Change the armature voltage, VA
3. Change the armature resistance, RA

The arguments describing the effects of changing RF or VA

are very similar to the arguments given earlier for the
shunt motor.
 Differentially Compounded DC Motor:
Torque Speed Characteristic
• The shunt magnetomotive force and series magnetomotive force
subtract from each other.
• This means that as the load on the motor increase,
IA increase and the flux in the motor decreased, (IA)
As the flux decrease, the speed of the motor increase, ()
This speed increase causes an-other increase in load, which further
increase IA,
Further decreasing the flux, and increasing the speed again.
• All the phenomena resulting the differentially compounded motor is
unstable and tends to run away.
• This instability is much worse than that of a shunt motor with
armature reaction, and make it unsuitable for any application.
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
Available AC source to control DC motor (brushed)

AC-DC AC-DC-DC

Uncontrolled Rectifier
Single-phase Control
Control
Three-phase
Controlled Rectifier DC-DC Switched mode
Single-phase 1-quadrant, 2-quadrant
Three-phase 4-quadrant
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
AC-DC
400

200

2Vm
Vo  cos  0

 -200

+ -400
0.4 0.405 0.41 0.415 0.42 0.425 0.43 0.435 0.44

10

50Hz Vo
1-phase Average voltage 5

over 10ms
 0
0.4 0.405 0.41 0.415 0.42 0.425 0.43 0.435 0.44

500

50Hz -500
+
3-phase 0.4 0.405 0.41 0.415 0.42 0.425 0.43 0.435 0.44

3VL  L ,m
Vo Vo  cos  30


20

 Average voltage
over 3.33 ms 10

0
0.4 0.405 0.41 0.415 0.42 0.425 0.43 0.435 0.44
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive

AC-DC
2Vm


+ 2Vm
Vo  cos 

50Hz Vo 90o 180o
1-phase Average voltage
over 10ms
 2Vm



3VL  L ,m

50Hz
+
3-phase
3VL  L ,m
Vo Vo  cos 
 90o 180o

 Average voltage
over 3.33 ms 3VL  L ,m


Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive

AC-DC

ia

+
Vt
3-phase Q1
supply Vt Q2

Q3 Q4 Ia


- Operation in quadrant 1 and 4 only

Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive

AC-DC

+
3-
phase 3-phase
Vt supply
supply

Q2 Q1

Q3 Q4
T
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive

AC-DC

F1 R1

3-phase
supply
+ Va -
R2 F2

Q2 Q1

Q3 Q4
T
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive

AC-DC
Cascade control structure with armature reversal (4-quadrant):

iD

wref + iD,ref + Firing

Speed Current
controller Controller Circuit
_
_

iD,ref
Armature
iD, reversal
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive

AC-DC-DC

Uncontrolled control
rectifier
Switch Mode DC-DC
1-Quadrant
2-Quadrant
4-Quadrant
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive

AC-DC-DC

control
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Two-quadrant Converter

Va
T1 D1
+
ia
Vdc Q2 Q1

+ Ia
 T2 D2
Va

T1 conducts  va = Vdc
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Two-quadrant Converter

Va
T1 D1
+
ia
Vdc Q2 Q1

+ Ia
 T2 D2
Va

D2 conducts  va = 0 T1 conducts  va = Vdc

Va Eb

Quadrant 1 The average voltage is made larger than the back emf
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Two-quadrant Converter

Va
T1 D1
+
ia
Vdc Q2 Q1

+ Ia
 T2 D2
Va

D1 conducts  va = Vdc
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Two-quadrant Converter

Va
T1 D1
+
ia
Vdc Q2 Q1

+ Ia
 T2 D2
Va

T2 conducts  va = 0 D1 conducts  va = Vdc

Va Eb

Quadrant 2 The average voltage is made smallerr than the back emf, thus
forcing the current to flow in the reverse direction
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Switching Control in Two-quadrant Converter

vc
2vtri

+
vA Vdc
-

+
vc
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Four-quadrant Converter
leg A leg B

+ D1 D3
Q1 Q3
+ Va 
Vdc

 D4 D2
Q4 Q2

Positive current
va = Vdc when Q1 and Q2 are ON
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Four-quadrant Converter
leg A leg B

+ D1 D3
Q1 Q3
+ Va 
Vdc

 D4 D2
Q4 Q2

Positive current
va = Vdc when Q1 and Q2 are ON
va = -Vdc when D3 and D4 are ON
va = 0 when current freewheels through Q and D
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Four-quadrant Converter
leg A leg B

+ D1 D3
Q1 Q3
+ Va 
Vdc

 D4 D2
Q4 Q2

Positive current Negative current

va = Vdc when Q1 and Q2 are ON va = Vdc when D1 and D2 are ON
va = -Vdc when D3 and D4 are ON
va = 0 when current freewheels through Q and D
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Four-quadrant Converter
leg A leg B

+ D1 D3
Q1 Q3
+ Va 
Vdc

 D4 D2
Q4 Q2

Positive current Negative current

va = Vdc when Q1 and Q2 are ON va = Vdc when D1 and D2 are ON
va = -Vdc when D3 and D4 are ON
va = 0 when current freewheels through Q and D
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Four-quadrant Converter
leg A leg B

+ D1 D3
Q1 Q3
+ Va 
Vdc

 D4 D2
Q4 Q2

Positive current Negative current

va = Vdc when Q1 and Q2 are ON va = Vdc when D1 and D2 are ON
va = -Vdc when D3 and D4 are ON va = -Vdc when Q3 and Q4 are ON
va = 0 when current freewheels through Q and D va = 0 when current freewheels through Q and D
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
Bipolar switching scheme – output
AC-DC-DC swings between VDC and -VDC

vc
2vtri

Vdc
Vdc
+ + vA
vA vB 0
- - Vdc
vB
0

vc Vdc

+ vAB

_ -Vdc
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
Unipolar switching scheme – output
AC-DC-DC swings between Vdc and -Vdc

vc
Vtri
-vc

Vdc
+ + Vdc
vA vB
vA
0
- -

Vdc
vc vB
0
+
Vdc
_
vAB
0

-vc
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Four-quadrant Converter

Armature
200
current 200

150 150 Armature

Vdc 100 Vdc 100
current
50 50

0 0

-50 -50

Vdc -100 -100

-150 -150

-200 -200

0.04 0.0405 0.041 0.0415 0.042 0.0425 0.043 0.0435 0.044 0.0445 0.045 0.04 0.0405 0.041 0.0415 0.042 0.0425 0.043 0.0435 0.044 0.0445 0.045

Bipolar switching scheme Unipolar switching scheme

• Current ripple in unipolar is smaller

• Output frequency in unipolar is effectively doubled
 Closed Loop Control of DC Drives

• Closed loop control is when the firing angle is

varied automatically by a controller to achieve a
reference speed or torque
• This requires the use of sensors to feed back the
actual motor speed and torque to be compared
with the reference values
Reference +
Controller Plant Output
signal  signal

Sensor

69
 Closed Loop Control of DC Drives

Feedback loops may be provided to satisfy one or

more of the following:
Protection
Enhancement of response – fast response with small
overshoot
Improve steady-state accuracy
Variables to be controlled in drives:
Torque – achieved by controlling current
Speed
Position

70
 Closed Loop Control of DC Drives
• Cascade control structure
• Flexible – outer loops can be added/removed depending on control
requirements.
• Control variable of inner loop (eg: speed, torque) can be limited by
limiting its reference value
• Torque loop is fastest, speed loop – slower and position loop - slowest
 Closed Loop Control of DC Drives
• Cascade control structure:
• Inner Torque (Current) Control Loop:
• Current control loop is used to control torque via armature
current (ia) and maintains current within a safe limit
• Accelerates and decelerates the drive at maximum permissible
current and torque during transient operations
Torque
(Current)
Control Loop
 Closed Loop Control of DC Drives
• Cascade control structure
• Speed Control Loop:
• Ensures that the actual speed is always equal to reference speed
*
• Provides fast response to changes in *, TL and supply voltage (i.e.
any transients are overcome within the shortest feasible time)
without exceeding motor and converter capability

Speed
Control
Loop
Closed Loop Control with Controlled
Rectifiers – Two-quadrant Current
Control Loop

Speed
Control
Loop
 Closed Loop Control with Controlled
Rectifiers – Two-quadrant

• Actual motor speed m measured using the tachogenerator (Tach) is

filtered to produce feedback signal mr
• The reference speed r* is compared to mr to obtain a speed error signal
• The speed (PI) controller processes the speed error and produces the
torque command Te*
• Te* is limited by the limiter to keep within the safe current limits and the
armature current command ia* is produced
• ia* is compared to actual current ia to obtain a current error signal
• The current (PI) controller processes the error to alter the control signal vc
• vc modifies the firing angle  to be sent to the converter to obtained the
motor armature voltage for the desired motor operation speed

75
 Closed Loop Control with Controlled
Rectifiers – Two-quadrant

• Design of speed and current controller (gain and time

constants) is crucial in meeting the dynamic
specifications of the drive system
• Controller design procedure:
1. Obtain the transfer function of all drive subsystems
a) DC Motor & Load
b) Current feedback loop sensor
c) Speed feedback loop sensor
2. Design current (torque) control loop first
3. Then design the speed control loop

Dr. Ungku Anisa, July 2008 EEEB443 - Control & Drives 76

 Transfer Function of Subsystems –
DC Motor and Load
• Assume load is proportional to speed
• DC motor has inner loop due to induced emf magnetic coupling,
which is not physically seen
• This creates complexity in current control loop design
TL  BLm

77
 Design of Controllers –
Block Diagram of Motor Drive
Current
Speed Control
Control Loop
Loop

Control loop design starts from inner (fastest) loop to

outer(slowest) loop
 Only have to solve for one controller at a time
Not all drive applications require speed control (outer loop)
Performance of outer loop depends on inner loop
 Design of Controllers– Current Controller

Controller Converter DC Motor

K c 1  sTc 
PI type current controller:
G c s  
sTc (14)
Open loop gain function:
 K1 K c K r H c 
GHol s   
1  sTc 1  sTm 
 (15)
 T c  s 1  sT1 1  sT2 1  sTr 

From the open loop gain, the system is of 4th order (due to 4 poles of
system)
 Design of Controllers–
Current loop 1st order approximation
• Approximated by adding Tr to T1T3
 T1  Tr

1st order
approximation
of current loop
• Hence, current model transfer function is given by:
K c K r K 1Tm 1
Ia s 

Tc 1  sT3  
Ki (24)
Ia s 
*
1
K c K r K 1 H cTm 1 1  sTi 
Tc 1  sT  3
80
Design of Controllers–
Speed Controller
Load

1st order approximation

of current loop

• PI type speed controller:

K s 1  sTs 
(29) G s s  
sTs
• Assume there is unity speed feedback:
H
G ω s   
1 (30)
1  sT 
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 Design of Controllers–
Speed Controller DC Motor &
Load

1st order
approximation of
1
current loop

Open loop gain function:

 K B K s Ki 
GHs   
1  sTs 
 (31)
 BtTs  s1  sTi 1  sTm 

From the loop gain, the system is of 3rd order.

If designing without computers, simplification is needed. 82
 Q&A

83