IT22301

DATA STRUCTURES AND

ALGORITHMS
Academic year 2023-24

Faculty
Dr. V. Vidhya,
Professor
Department of Information Technology,
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering.
[email protected]
 Hashing

• Searching Techniques-linear search, binary search, search trees etc.

In these techniques, time taken to search any particular element
depends on the total number of elements.

• Example-
• Linear Search takes O(n) time to perform the search in unsorted
arrays consisting of n elements.
• Binary Search takes O(logn) time to perform the search in sorted
arrays consisting of n elements.
•
Drawback-

•
• The main drawback of these techniques is-
• As the number of elements increases, time taken to perform the
search also increases.
• This becomes problematic when total number of elements become
too large.
Hashing

• Hashing is a well-known technique to search any particular element

among several elements.
• It minimizes the number of comparisons while performing the
search.
•
• Advantage-
•
• Unlike other searching techniques,
• Hashing is extremely efficient.
• The time taken by it to perform the search does not depend upon
the total number of elements.
• It completes the search with constant time complexity O(1).
•
Hashing Mechanism-

• In hashing,
• An array data structure called as Hash table is used to store the data
items.
• Based on the hash key value, data items are inserted into the hash
table.
• Hash Key Value-
• Hash key value is a special value that serves as an index for a data
item.
• It indicates where the data item should be be stored in the hash
table.
• Hash key value is generated using a hash function.
•
Hash Function-

Hash Function-

Hash function is a function that maps any big number or string to a small integer
value.

· Hash function takes the data item as an input and returns a small
integer value as an output.
· The small integer value is called as a hash value.
· Hash value of the data item is then used as an index for storing it
into the hash table.
Hashing Mechanism-
 Types of Hash Functions-
• There are various types of hash functions available such as-
• 1.Mid Square Hash Function,h(K) = h(k x k),Here,k is the key value.

• 2.Division Hash Function,h(K) = k mod M,Here,k is the key value, and

• M is the size of the hash table.

• 3.Folding Hash Function etc,

• = k1, k2, k3, k4, ….., kn
• s = k1+ k2 + k3 + k4 +….+ kn
• h(K)= s
• Here,
• s is obtained by adding the parts of the key k
•
• It depends on the user which hash function he wants to use.
Properties of Hash Function-

•
• The properties of a good hash function are-
• It is efficiently computable.
• It minimizes the number of collisions.
• It distributes the keys uniformly over the table.
 Collision in Hashing-
In hashing,
· Hash function is used to compute the hash value for a key.
· Hash value is then used as an index to store the key in the hash table.
· Hash function may return the same hash value for two or more keys.

When the hash value of a key maps to an already occupied bucket of the hash table,it is called as a Collision.
Collision Resolution Techniques-

• Collision Resolution Techniques

are the techniques used for
resolving or handling the
collision.
• Collision resolution techniques
are classified as-
Collision Resolution Techniques-

• 1. Separate Chaining-To handle the collision,

• This technique creates a linked list to the slot for which collision
occurs.
• The new key is then inserted in the linked list.
• These linked lists to the slots appear like chains.That is why, this
technique is called as separate chaining.
2.Open Addressing
• Unlike separate chaining, all the keys are stored inside the hash table.
• No key is stored outside the hash table.
•
• Time Complexity-For Searching-
• In worst case, all the keys might map to the same bucket of the hash table.
• In such a case, all the keys will be present in a single linked list.
• Sequential search will have to be performed on the linked list to perform the
search.So, time taken for searching in worst case is O(n).
• For Deletion-
• In worst case, the key might have to be searched first and then deleted.
• In worst case, time taken for searching is O(n).
• So, time taken for deletion in worst case is O(n).
• Load Factor (α)- Load factor (α) is defined as-
• If Load factor (α) = constant, then time complexity of Insert, Search, Delete
= Θ(1)
Problem-

• Using the hash function ‘key mod 7’, insert the following sequence of
keys in the hash table-
• 50, 700, 76, 85, 92, 73 and 101

• Use separate chaining technique for collision resolution.

Solution-

• The given sequence of keys will be inserted

in the hash table as-
Step-01:
• Draw an empty hash table.
• For the given hash function, the possible
range of hash values is [0, 6].
• So, draw an empty hash table consisting of 7
buckets as-
Step-02:

•
• Insert the given keys in the hash table one
by one.
• The first key to be inserted in the hash
table = 50.
• Bucket of the hash table to which key 50
maps = 50 mod 7 = 1.
• So, key 50 will be inserted in bucket-1 of
the hash table as-
•
• Step-03:
•
• The next key to be inserted in
the hash table = 700.
• Bucket of the hash table to
which key 700 maps = 700 mod
7 = 0.
• So, key 700 will be inserted in
bucket-0 of the hash table as-
• Step-04:
•
• The next key to be inserted in
the hash table = 76.
• Bucket of the hash table to
which key 76 maps = 76 mod 7 =
6.
• So, key 76 will be inserted in
bucket-6 of the hash table as-
• Step-05:
•
• The next key to be inserted in
the hash table = 85.
• Bucket of the hash table to
which key 85 maps = 85 mod 7 =
1.
• Since bucket-1 is already
occupied, so collision occurs.
• Separate chaining handles the
collision by creating a linked list
to bucket-1.
• So, key 85 will be inserted in
bucket-1 of the hash table as-
• Step-06:
•
• The next key to be inserted in
the hash table = 92.
• Bucket of the hash table to
which key 92 maps = 92 mod 7 =
1.
• Since bucket-1 is already
occupied, so collision occurs.
• Separate chaining handles the
collision by creating a linked list
to bucket-1.
• So, key 92 will be inserted in
bucket-1 of the hash table as-
• Step-07:
•
• The next key to be inserted in the hash table = 73.
• Bucket of the hash table to which key 73 maps = 73
mod 7 = 3.
• So, key 73 will be inserted in bucket-3 of the hash
table as-
• Step-08:
•
• The next key to be inserted in the hash table = 101.
• Bucket of the hash table to which key 101 maps = 101 mod 7 = 3.
• Since bucket-3 is already occupied, so collision occurs.
• Separate chaining handles the collision by creating a linked list to
bucket-3.
• So, key 101 will be inserted in bucket-3 of the hash table as-
Open Addressing

• Unlike separate chaining, all the keys are stored inside the hash table.
• No key is stored outside the hash table.
•
• Techniques used for open addressing are-
• Linear Probing
• Quadratic Probing
• Double Hashing
•
• Operations in Open Addressing-
• Let us discuss how operations are performed in open addressing-
• Insert Operation-
• Hash function is used to compute the hash value for a key to be inserted.
• Hash value is then used as an index to store the key in the hash table.
• In case of collision,
• Probing is performed until an empty bucket is found.
• Once an empty bucket is found, the key is inserted.
• Probing is performed in accordance with the technique used for open
addressing.
• Search Operation-
• To search any particular key,
• Its hash value is obtained using the hash function used.
• Using the hash value, that bucket of the hash table is checked.
• If the required key is found, the key is searched.
• Otherwise, the subsequent buckets are checked until the required key or an
empty bucket is found.
• The empty bucket indicates that the key is not present in the hash table.
Delete Operation-

• The key is first searched and then deleted.

• After deleting the key, that particular bucket is marked as “deleted”.

• NOTE-
• During insertion, the buckets marked as “deleted” are treated like
any other empty bucket.
• During searching, the search is not terminated on encountering the
bucket marked as “deleted”.
• The search terminates only after the required key or an empty bucket
is found.
Open Addressing Techniques-
• 1. Linear Probing-
• When collision occurs, we linearly probe for the next bucket.
• We keep probing until an empty bucket is found.
• Advantage-It is easy to compute.

• Disadvantage-
• The main problem with linear probing is clustering.
• Many consecutive elements form groups.
• Then, it takes time to search an element or to find an empty bucket.
• Time Complexity-
•
• Worst time to search an element in linear probing is O (table size).
•
• This is because-
• Even if there is only one element present and all other elements are
deleted.
• Then, “deleted” markers present in the hash table makes search the
entire table.
2. Quadratic Probing-

• In quadratic probing,
• When collision occurs, we probe for i2‘th bucket in ith iteration.
• We keep probing until an empty bucket is found.
• 3. Double Hashing-
• In double hashing,
• We use another hash function hash2(x) and look for i * hash2(x)
bucket in ith iteration.
• It requires more computation time as two hash functions need to be
computed.
Comparison of Open Addressing Techniques-

Linear Probing Quadratic Probing Double Hashing

Primary Clustering Yes No No

Secondary Clustering Yes Yes No

Number of Probe
Sequence(m = size of table)
m m m2

Cache performance Best Lies between the two Poor

• Conclusions-
•
• Linear Probing has the best cache performance but suffers from
clustering.
• Quadratic probing lies between the two in terms of cache
performance and clustering.
• Double caching has poor cache performance but no clustering.
• Load Factor (α)-
•
• Load factor (α) is defined as-
• In open addressing, the value of load factor always lie between 0 and
1.
•

• This is because-
• In open addressing, all the keys are stored inside the hash table.
• So, size of the table is always greater or at least equal to the number
of keys stored in the table.
• Problem-
•
• Using the hash function ‘key mod 7’, insert the following sequence of
keys in the hash table-
• 50, 700, 76, 85, 92, 73 and 101
•
• Use linear probing technique for collision resolution.
•
• Solution-
•
• The given sequence of keys will
be inserted in the hash table as-
•
• Step-01:
•
• Draw an empty hash table.
• For the given hash function, the
possible range of hash values is
[0, 6].
• So, draw an empty hash table
consisting of 7 buckets as-
• Step-02:
•
• Insert the given keys in the hash
table one by one.
• The first key to be inserted in
the hash table = 50.
• Bucket of the hash table to
which key 50 maps = 50 mod 7 =
1.
• So, key 50 will be inserted in
bucket-1 of the hash table as-
• Step-03:
•
• The next key to be inserted in
the hash table = 700.
• Bucket of the hash table to
which key 700 maps = 700 mod
7 = 0.
• So, key 700 will be inserted in
bucket-0 of the hash table as-
• Step-04:
•
• The next key to be inserted in
the hash table = 76.
• Bucket of the hash table to
which key 76 maps = 76 mod 7 =
6.
• So, key 76 will be inserted in
bucket-6 of the hash table as-
• Step-05:
•
• The next key to be inserted in the hash table =
85.
• Bucket of the hash table to which key 85 maps =
85 mod 7 = 1.
• Since bucket-1 is already occupied, so collision
occurs.
• To handle the collision, linear probing technique
keeps probing linearly until an empty bucket is
found.
• The first empty bucket is bucket-2.
• So, key 85 will be inserted in bucket-2 of the hash
table as-
•
• Step-06:
•
• The next key to be inserted in the hash
table = 92.
• Bucket of the hash table to which key 92
maps = 92 mod 7 = 1.
• Since bucket-1 is already occupied, so
collision occurs.
• To handle the collision, linear probing
technique keeps probing linearly until an
empty bucket is found.
• The first empty bucket is bucket-3.
• So, key 92 will be inserted in bucket-3 of
the hash table as-
•
• Step-07:
•
• The next key to be inserted in the hash table = 73.
• Bucket of the hash table to which key 73 maps = 73
mod 7 = 3.
• Since bucket-3 is already occupied, so collision
occurs.
• To handle the collision, linear probing technique
keeps probing linearly until an empty bucket is
found.
• The first empty bucket is bucket-4.
• So, key 73 will be inserted in bucket-4 of the hash
table as-
• Step-08:
•
• The next key to be inserted in the hash table =
101.
• Bucket of the hash table to which key 101 maps =
101 mod 7 = 3.
• Since bucket-3 is already occupied, so collision
occurs.
• To handle the collision, linear probing technique
keeps probing linearly until an empty bucket is
found.
• The first empty bucket is bucket-5.
• So, key 101 will be inserted in bucket-5 of the
hash table as-
• Which is the Preferred Technique?
• The performance of both the techniques depend on the kind of operations that
are required to be performed on the keys stored in the hash table-
• Separate Chaining-
• Separate Chaining is advantageous when it is required to perform all the
following operations on the keys stored in the hash table-
• Insertion Operation .Deletion Operation .Searching Operation
• NOTE-Deletion is easier in separate chaining.
• This is because deleting a key from the hash table does not affect the other
keys stored in the hash table.
• Open Addressing-
• Open addressing is advantageous when it is required to perform only the
following operations on the keys stored in the hash table-
• Insertion Operation .Searching Operation
• NOTE-Deletion is difficult in open addressing.
• This is because deleting a key from the hash table requires some extra efforts.
• After deleting a key, certain keys have to be rearranged.
•