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Com a l C o
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S tren fo

Signal and Systems

Departemen Teknik Elektro Otomasi
Fakultas Vokasi
Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember
2022
Outline
• Signal and System
• Properties of Signal
• Properties of System
• Signal and System Relation
• Signal Energy & Power
• Time-Shift Transformation
• Types of Signals
 What is a Signal?
• A signal is a pattern of variation of some form
• Signals are variables that carry information

Examples of signal include:

Electrical signals
– Voltages and currents in a circuit
Acoustic signals
– Acoustic pressure (sound) over time
Mechanical signals
– Velocity of a car over time
Video signals
– Intensity level of a pixel (camera, video) over time

3/20
 How is a Signal Represented?
Mathematically, signals are represented as a function of one or more
independent variables.
For instance a black & white video signal intensity is dependent on x, y
coordinates and time t f(x,y,t)
On this course, we shall be exclusively concerned with signals that are a
function of a single variable: time

f(t)

4/20
 Example: Signals in an Electrical Circuit
R vs (t )  vc (t )
i (t ) 
R
dv (t )
+ i i (t )  C c
vs - C vc dt
dvc (t ) 1 1
 vc (t )  vs (t )
dt RC RC
The signals vc and vs are patterns of variation over time

• Step (signal) vs at t=1

vs, vc

• RC = 1
• First order (exponential)
response for vc

t
Note, we could also have considered the voltage across the resistor or
the current as signals
5/20
 Continuous & Discrete-Time Signals
Continuous-Time Signals
Most signals in the real world are
continuous time, as the scale is x(t)
infinitesimally fine.
Eg voltage, velocity,
Denote by x(t), where the time
interval may be bounded (finite) or t
infinite
Discrete-Time Signals
Some real world and many digital
signals are discrete time, as they
are sampled
x[n]
E.g. pixels, daily stock price
(anything that a digital computer
processes)
Denote by x[n], where n is an integer n
value that varies discretely
Sampled continuous signal
x[n] =x(nk) – k is sample time 6/20
 Signal Properties
On this course, we shall be particularly interested in signals with
certain properties:
Periodic signals: a signal is periodic if it repeats itself after a fixed
period T, i.e. x(t) = x(t+T) for all t. A sin(t) signal is periodic.
Even and odd signals: a signal is even if x(-t) = x(t) (i.e. it can be
reflected in the axis at zero). A signal is odd if x(-t) = -x(t).
Examples are cos(t) and sin(t) signals, respectively.
Exponential and sinusoidal signals: a signal is (real) exponential if it
can be represented as x(t) = Ceat. A signal is (complex) exponential
if it can be represented in the same form but C and a are complex
numbers.
Step and pulse signals: A pulse signal is one which is nearly
completely zero, apart from a short spike, d(t). A step signal is zero
up to a certain time, and then a constant value after that time, u(t).

These properties define a large class of tractable, useful signals and

will be further considered in the coming lectures

7/20
 What is a System?
• Systems process input signals to produce output signals

Examples:
– A circuit involving a capacitor can be viewed as a system that transforms the
source voltage (signal) to the voltage (signal) across the capacitor
– A CD player takes the signal on the CD and transforms it into a signal sent
to the loud speaker
– A communication system is generally composed of three sub-systems, the
transmitter, the channel and the receiver. The channel typically attenuates
and adds noise to the transmitted signal which must be processed by the
receiver

8/20
 How is a System Represented?
A system takes a signal as an input and transforms it
into another signal

Input signal Output signal

System
x(t) y(t)

In a very broad sense, a system can be represented as

the ratio of the output signal over the input signal

That way, when we “multiply” the system by the input

signal, we get the output signal
This concept will be firmed up in the coming weeks

9/20
 Example: An Electrical Circuit System
R
vs (t )  vc (t )
i (t ) 
R
dv (t )
+ i i (t )  C c
vs - C vc dt
dvc (t ) 1 1
 vc (t )  vs (t )
dt RC RC

Simulink representation of the electrical circuit

vs, vc
vs(t) vc(t)

first order
system t

10/20
 Continuous & Discrete-Time
Mathematical Models of Systems
Continuous-Time Systems dvc (t ) 1 1
 vc (t )  vs (t )
Most continuous time systems dt RC RC
represent how continuous
signals are transformed via dv(t )
m  v(t )  f (t )
differential equations. dt
E.g. circuit, car velocity First order differential equations

Discrete-Time Systems
y[n]  1.01 y[n  1]  x[n]
Most discrete time systems
represent how discrete signals m 
v[n]  v[n  1]  f [ n]
are transformed via difference m   m  
equations
E.g. bank account, discrete car dv(n) v(n)  v(( n  1))

velocity system dt 
First order difference equations
11/20
 Properties of a System
On this course, we shall be particularly interested in
signals with certain properties:
• Causal: a system is causal if the output at a time, only
depends on input values up to that time.
• Linear: a system is linear if the output of the scaled
sum of two input signals is the equivalent scaled sum of
outputs
• Time-invariance: a system is time invariant if the
system’s output is the same, given the same input
signal, regardless of time.
These properties define a large class of tractable, useful
systems and will be further considered in the coming
lectures
12/20
 How Are Signal & Systems Related (i)?
How to design a system to process a signal in particular
ways?

Design a system to restore or enhance a particular signal

– Remove high frequency background communication noise
– Enhance noisy images from spacecraft

Assume a signal is represented as

x(t) = d(t) + n(t)
Design a system to remove the unknown “noise” component
n(t), so that y(t)  d(t)

x(t) = d(t) + n(t) System y(t)  d(t)

?
13/20
 How Are Signal & Systems Related (ii)?
How to design a system to extract specific pieces of
information from signals
– Estimate the heart rate from an electrocardiogram
– Estimate economic indicators (bear, bull) from stock
market values

Assume a signal is represented as

x(t) = g(d(t))
Design a system to “invert” the transformation g(), so that
y(t) = d(t)

x(t) = g(d(t)) System y(t) = d(t) = g-1(x(t))

?

14/20
 How Are Signal & Systems Related (iii)?
How to design a (dynamic) system to modify or control the
output of another (dynamic) system
– Control an aircraft’s altitude, velocity, heading by adjusting
throttle, rudder, ailerons
– Control the temperature of a building by adjusting the
heating/cooling energy flow.

Assume a signal is represented as

x(t) = g(d(t))
Design a system to “invert” the transformation g(), so that
y(t) = d(t)

x(t) dynamic y(t) = d(t)

system ?
15/20
 “Electrical” Signal Energy & Power
It is often useful to characterise signals by measures such
as energy and power
For example, the instantaneous power of a resistor is:
1 2
p (t )  v(t )i (t )  v (t )
R
and the total energy expanded over the interval [t1, t2] is:
t2 t2 1
t1  t1 R (t )dt
2
p (t ) dt v

and the average energy is:

1 t 1 t 1 2
 p (t )dt  
2 2
v (t )dt
t 2  t1 t
1 1 t 2  t1 t R
How are these concepts defined for any continuous or
discrete time signal?

16/25
 Generic Signal Energy and Power
Total energy of a continuous signal x(t) over [t1, t2] is:
t2
E   x(t ) dt
2
t1

where |.| denote the magnitude of the (complex) number.

Similarly for a discrete time signal x[n] over [n1, n2]:
E  n  n x[n]
n2 2

By dividing the quantities by (t2-t1) and (n2-n1+1),

respectively, gives the average power, P

Note that these are similar to the electrical analogies

(voltage), but they are different, both value and dimension.

17/25
 Energy and Power over Infinite Time
For many signals, we’re interested in examining the power and energy
over an infinite time interval (-∞, ∞). These quantities are therefore
defined by: T 
E  lim T   x(t ) dt   x(t ) dt
2 2
T 

E  lim N  n   N x[n]  n   x[n]

N 2  2

If the sums or integrals do not converge, the energy of such a signal is

infinite 1 T

2
P  lim T  x(t ) dt
2T T

1
 x[n]
N 2
P  lim N 
2 N  1 n N
Two important (sub)classes of signals
1. Finite total energy (and therefore zero average power)
2. Finite average power (and therefore infinite total energy)
Signal analysis over infinite time, all depends on the “tails” (limiting
behaviour)

18/25
 Time Shift Signal Transformations
A central concept in signal analysis is the transformation of one
signal into another signal. Of particular interest are simple
transformations that involve a transformation of the time axis only.
A linear time shift signal transformation is given by:
y (t )  x(at  b)
where b represents a signal offset from 0, and the a parameter
represents a signal stretching if |a|>1, compression if 0<|a|<1 and
a reflection if a<0.

19/25
 Periodic Signals
An important class of signals is the class of periodic signals. A periodic
signal is a continuous time signal x(t), that has the property
2p
x(t )  x(t  T )
where T>0, for all t.

Examples:
cos(t+2p) = cos(t)
sin(t+2p) = sin(t)
Are both periodic with period 2p

NB for a signal to be periodic, the relationship must hold for all t.

20/25
 Odd and Even Signals
An even signal is identical to its time reversed signal, i.e. it
can be reflected in the origin and is equal to the original:
x(t )  x(t )
Examples:
x(t) = cos(t)
x(t) = c
An odd signal is identical to its negated, time reversed
signal, i.e. it is equal to the negative reflected signal
x(t )   x(t )
Examples:
x(t) = sin(t)
x(t) = t
This is important because any signal can be expressed as
the sum of an odd signal and an even signal.
21/25
 Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
Exponential and sinusoidal signals are characteristic of real-world
signals and also from a basis (a building block) for other
signals.
A generic complex exponential signal is of the form:
x(t )  Ce at
where C and a are, in general, complex numbers. Lets investigate
some special cases of this signal
Real exponential signals
Exponential growth Exponential decay
a0 a0
C 0 C 0

22/25
 Periodic Complex Exponential &
Sinusoidal Signals
Consider when a is purely imaginary:
x(t )  Ce j0t
By Euler’s relationship, this can be expressed cos(1)
as:
e j0t  cos 0t  j sin 0t
This is a periodic signals because:
e j0 (t T )  cos 0 (t  T )  j sin 0 (t  T )
 cos 0t  j sin 0t  e j0t
when T=2p/w0
A closely related signal is the sinusoidal T0 = 2p/w0
signal: =p
x(t )  cos0t    0  2f 0 T0 is the fundamental
We can always use: time period

A cos0t     A e j (0t  )  w0 is the fundamental
A sin  t     Ae
0
j (  0 t  )
 frequency

23/25
Exponential & Sinusoidal Signal Properties
Periodic signals, in particular complex periodic
and sinusoidal signals, have infinite total
energy but finite average power.
Consider energy over one period:
T0
j 0 t 2
E period   e dt
0
T0
  1dt  T0
Therefore: 0

E  
Average power:
1
Pperiod  E period  1
T0
Useful to consider harmonic signals

Terminology is consistent with its use in music,

where each frequency is an integer multiple
of a fundamental frequency

24/25
 General Complex Exponential Signals
So far, considered the real and periodic complex exponential
Now consider when C can be complex. Let us express C is polar form
and a in rectangular form:
C  C e j
a  r  j 0
So
Ce at  C e j e ( r  j0 ) t  C e rt e j (0  ) t
Using Euler’s relation
Ce at  C e j e ( r  j0 ) t  C e rt cos((0   )t )  j C e rt sin((0   )t )
These are damped sinusoids

25/25
 Discrete Unit Impulse and Step Signals
The discrete unit impulse signal is defined:
0 n  0
x[n]   [n]  
1 n  0
Useful as a basis for analyzing other signals

The discrete unit step signal is defined:

0 n  0
x[n]  u[n]  
1 n  0
Note that the unit impulse is the first
difference (derivative) of the step signal
 [n]  u[n]  u[n  1]
Similarly, the unit step is the running sum
(integral) of the unit impulse.

26/25
 Continuous Unit Impulse and Step Signals
The continuous unit impulse signal is
defined:
0 t  0
x(t )   (t )  
 t  0
Note that it is discontinuous at t=0
The arrow is used to denote area, rather
than actual value
Again, useful for an infinite basis

The continuous unit step signal is defined:

t
x(t )  u (t )    ( )d


0 t  0
x(t )  u (t )  
1 t  0

27/25
Thank You
Next Lecture :
Linear Time Invariant System