Hydraulic Structures I

By: Alemu O. (M.Sc.)

 1. Hydraulic Structures
• Hydraulic structures are engineering structures
constructed for the purposes of harnessing and using
water resources (groundwater, surface water, lakes, sea,
etc) or for the prevention of the negative and destructive
actions (floods, shore erosion, etc) of water on the
surrounding environment.
• There are a large variety of hydraulic structures to serve
the many purposes for which water resources are put to
use.
• There are several classifications of hydraulic structures,
however, the most important is the classification by
function as given below.
 Type
Purpose Structure
1. Storage structures To store water Dams, tanks
2. Flow control To regulate the Spillways, outlets,
structures quantity and pass gates, Valves
excess flow
3. Flow To determine Discharge Weirs, orifices, flumes
measurement
Structures
4. Division To divert the main Coffer dams, weirs,
structures course of water canal head works,
intake works
5. Conveyance To guide flow from one Open channel, pressure
Structures location to conduits, pipes,
Another canals & sewers
6. Collection To collect water for Drain inlets,
structures Disposal infiltration galleries,
wells
 Cont…
7. Energy To prevent erosion and Stilling basins, surge
dissipation structural damage tanks,
Structures check dams
8. Shore To protect banks Dikes, groins,
protection jetties,
structures revetments
9. River training To maintain river Levees, cutoffs,
and waterway channel and water locks, piers, culverts
stabilization Transportation
Structures
10. Sediment and To control or remove Racks, screens, traps,
quality sediments and other sedimentation tanks,
control pollutants filters, sluiceways
structures
11. Hydraulic To convert energy from Pumps, turbines, rams.
machines one from to Another
 Cont…
Storage structures - Dams
• Dam: It is hydraulic structure constructed across a natural
streams or rivers to create reservoir for impounding water, or to
facilitate diversion of water from the river, or to retain debris
flowing in the river.
There are three common classification schemes for dams.
1. Classification Based on Purpose
A) Storage Dams
I. Flood control---detention dam (Needed at dire dawa )
II. Water supply: domestic, municipal, industrial, irrigation, etc
III. Hydroelectric power
IV. Recreation
V. Pollution control
 Cont…
B) Stage Control Dams
I. Storage dams for impounding water for developmental uses.
II. Diversion dams for diverting stream flow into canals or other
conveyance system and
III. Detention dams to hold the water temporary to retard flood
flows
C) Barrier Dams
IV. Levees and Dykes(constructed along the river to protect the
surrounding area from flooding; like in awash river-wonji &
metahara)
V. Coffer dams –is temporary dam constructed to exclude water
from a specific area
D) Debris dam – used to catch and retain debris (sand, gravel,
silt, drift wood)
 Cont…
2. Classification Based on Hydraulic Design
I. Overflow Dams: to carry discharge over their crests
II. Non-overflow Dams: which are not designed to be overtopped.
3. Classification Based on Materials of Construction
• The most common classification is one based on the materials of
which dams are made.
• There are two types of dams with respect to type of construction
material: rigid and non-rigid dams.
I. Rigid dam is that which is constructed with rigid materials such
as masonry, concrete, steel or timber
II. Non-rigid dam is that which is constructed with non –rigid
materials such as earth, tailing, rock fill etc
 Cont…
A broad classification is made into two generic types according to
the principal materials of construction employed
A) Embankment Dams
• They are constructed of earth/rock materials.
• Upstream and downstream faces are similar and of moderate
slope angles; giving wide sections and large construction
volumes relative to height.
B) Concrete Dams (gravity, buttress, arch etc)
• They are constructed of mass concrete.
• Face slopes are dissimilar, general steep downstream and near
vertical upstream slopes.
• These dams have relatively slender profile depending on the
specific types.
• Timber, steel, masonry, etc, dams could also be constructed in
some cases.
1.2 What is the function of a Dam?
 Dam provide a means of regulating downstream surface water
flows over space and time by altering the natural spatial and
temporal distributions of stream flows.
 To improve the quality of human life by providing….
 Control the temporal distribution of water
 Maximize benefits from water
 Minimize water related problems
 Benefits
• Hydro Power hydropower
• Irrigation
• Water supply
• Place for birds
• flood &
• aquatic life
control • Flood control
• Navigation
• recreati
navigation on

Irrigation
riparian habitat
Negative Impacts of damming
Eutrification and produce
methane and CO2 gas
Flooding the upstream change of
existing ecology
Fragmenting the river ecosystem
affect the movement of aquatic
animals
Sediment trap and increase
the sediment carrying
capacity of the river
Change in river
temperature and aquatic life
 Dam Basics

Reservoir
Dam

River
 Component parts of the dam
• Dam is a man made structure across a river to
impound water on the upstream called a reservoir.

Abutments
Face
Crest
Toe
Outlet
spillway
 Components

Face – exposed surface of the structure

Abutments – sides of the dam
Crest – top of the dam
Toe – natural ground surface
Outlet – primary opening to discharge water
Spillway – chute to allow excess water flow
 1.3 Concrete Dam types and their Characteristics

• Concrete dams are hard, non-yielding and rigid structures.

• Loads are transmitted through the dam body and to the
foundation.
• They require strong and more or less uniform rock foundations.
• Based to type of design, Concrete dams will classified:

A. Concrete arch dams

B. Concrete buttress dams
C. Concrete gravity dams
 Concrete Arch Dam
• Are rigid structure with a considerable upstream curvature

• Are Usually non-overflow type

• Are restricted to relatively narrow valley/gorges sections with

strong abutments

• As compared to the gravity or buttress dam

– Are structurally more efficient,
– Greatly reduce the volume of concrete required.
 Typical Concrete Arch Dam

Monticello Dam impounds Putah Creek west of Sacramento, California

 Concrete Arch Dam

 Structurally resist the imposed loads by combination of

◦ arch and
◦ cantilever action.

 Transmit the major portion of

◦ The water load to the abutments or valley sides
◦ The weight of structure to the floor of the valley,

 Require large horizontal reactions by the abutments.

 Valley Shapes for Arch Dam
To determine the site suitability for an arch dam the canyon shape factor
(CSF) equation of may be used:

B  H (sec 1  sec 2 )
CSF 
H

The ratio of crest length to dam height is recommended to be ≤ 5.

Usual values of CSF are from 2 to 5.
The lower the CSF value the thinner the section.
 Classification of valleys by CSF

B  H (sec 1  sec 2 )
CSF 
H

Valley type Bottom width B 1 2 CSF

U shaped <H < 150 < 150 < 3.1
Narrow V shaped 0 < 350 < 350 < 2.4
Wide V-shaped 0 > 350 > 350 > 2.4
Composite U-V shaped < 2H > 150 > 150  4.1
Wide and flat shapes > 2H 1 2 > 4.0
Unclassified Highly irregular valley shape
 Classification of Arch Dams
Massive arch dam:- The whole span of the dam is covered by a
single curved wall usually vertical or nearly so.
Massive arch dams are further divided into the following
types:
 Constant radius arch dams,
 Constant angle arch dams,
 Variable radius arch dams,
 Double curvature or Cupola arch dams, and
 Arch gravity dams.
Multiple arch dam:- series of arches cover the whole span of the
dam, usually inclined and supported on piers or buttresses.
Multiple arch dams are usually considered as a type of
buttress dam and will be described later.
 Constant Radius Arch Dam

the simplest geometric profile that combines a vertical u/s face of constant
extrados radius with a uniform radial d/s slope.
is not the most economical profile in volume, but simple to analyze and
construct.
is suitable to relatively symmetrical “U” shaped valley.
For a site with variable span length “V” shaped valleys a constant radius
can have the correct central angle only at one elevation. Therefore, smallest
masonry volume for the whole dam is obtained by increasing the top angle
to get the best average angle.
Usually a maximum of 150o is used for the top arch.
 Constant Angle Arch Dam

different arches has the same Central angle 2 from top to bottom.
in practice 2 = 1000 to 1500 is used.
uses about 70% concrete as compared to constant radius arch
dam.
 Variable Radius Arch Dam
It is a compromise between constant radius and constant angle
arch dams, i.e., neither the radius nor the angle is constant.
The radii of the extrados and intrados surfaces vary from the top
to bottom, usually maximum at the top and minimum at the base.
The central angle of the different arches is not constant; it
usually ranges from 800 to 1500.
The central angle for the top arch is made as wide as possible.
It is suitable for V and U-V shaped valleys.
The radius is varied to cut the face at the required contour
interval so that there is no overhang.
Concrete volume consumed is about 80% of that for constant
radius arch dam of the same height.
Typical Arch-gravity dam
Plan and section
Multiple-Arch dam
 Arch Dam
Loads
• The loads are the same as that of gravity dams.
• Uplift forces are less important (not significant).
• Internal stresses caused by temperature changes and yielding
of abutments are very important.
• Foundation stresses are generally small.
 CONCRETE BUTTRESS DAMS
• Buttress dams. In structural concept the buttress dam
consists of a continuous upstream face supported at
regular intervals by downstream buttresses.
• Are adaptable to an overflow or a non-overflow type.
• Are suitable where bearing pressures of the rock is 2 -
3 MPa.
 Typical Concrete Buttress Dam

Lake Tahoe Dam impounds the Truckee River in northern California

 Classification of Buttress Dams
Two ways of classification

A. Based on the type of deck

1. Deck/flat slab or Amberson type
2. Multiple-arch type
3. Multiple-dome type
4. Massive/bulk head type

B. Based on the joint between the deck and buttresses

1. Rigid buttress dams
2. Articulated buttress dams
3. Intermediate or semi-rigid buttress dams
 GRAVITY DAMS
• Basically, gravity dams are solid concrete structures that
maintain their stability against design loads from the geometric
shape and the weight and strength of the structure.
• Generally, they are constructed on a straight axis, but may be
slightly curved or angled to accommodate the specific site
conditions.
• Gravity dams typically consist of a non-overflow section(s) and
an overflow section or spillway.
• They are constructed with masonry or concrete
 1.4 EMBANKMENT DAMS

• Are classified as non-rigid type of dam.

• Are constructed from fragmented natural materials;
– excavated or obtained close to the dam site,
– placed without the addition of any binding agent, and
– compacted using high capacity mechanical plant.
• Strength and stability derived from:
– their weight [inertia],
– internal friction, and
– mutual attraction of particles.
 Embankment dam
(construction material)

1. Earth fill Embankment dams:

When compacted soils, i.e. clays/silts & sands, account for

over 50% of the placed volume of material.

2. Rock fill Embankment dams:

if compacted rock particles larger than a man can easily

lift, i.e. coarse grained frictional material, accounts for

over 50% of the placed volume of materials.

 Cont…

1. Earth fill Embankment dams:

based on construction method earth dams are divided into:

A. Rolled fill dam, which could further be divided into;

I. Homogeneous type dams

II. Zoned type dams

III. Diaphragm type dams

B. Hydraulic fill dam

C. Semi-hydraulic fill dam
 Feature
• Homogeneous :
– Seepage problem
– Need huge section to solve seepage
– Or internal/toe drainage filter
• Diaphragm
– Thin core less than 10m
• Zoned
– Thick core material (silt or clay)
Typical section of earth dam
 Classification cont..
2. Rock fill Embankment dams
 Are embankments of loose rock with either a watertight
upstream face of concrete slabs or timber or a watertight core.
 Is Classified based on the configuration of dam section as:
Central core
Inclined core
 Facing

The main body of rock fill dams, which should have a structural
resistance against failure, consists of rock fill shell and transition
zones, and core and facing zones have a role to minimize
leakage through embankment
Cont…..

– Filter zone should be provided in any type of rock fill dams

to prevent loss of soil particles through embankment.
– In earth fill dams, on the other hand, the dam body is the only
one which should have both structural and seepage resistance
against failure with a provided drainage facilities.
– They have characteristics between earth fill and gravity
dams; w.r.t. flexibility, foundation requirement, they demand
of base width (use steeper slope reduce wider base width
requirement)
 Gravity Dam Timber Dam

Embankment Dam
Steel Dam
Cofferdam

Arch Dam
Timber Dam

Steel Dam
 Rockfill Dam

Arch Dam

Solid Gravity Dam

Combined Earth & Rockfill Dam

Earth Dam
 Relative advantages
Gravity (concrete )dam Embankment (earth) dam
• Stable strong and durable • Cheaper, suite to wide flat
• Suite to gorges with steep slope
slope • Small height not more than 20
• Constructed to great height m
• Can use over flow spillway • Separate spillway
• Suited to high down pour • Shorter time of construction
• Can be constructed in all • Less skilled labor
climate • Suite to subsequent raise
• Use deep-set sluice to • Are more earth quake resistant
minimize sediment
• Low maintenance cost
 Relative advantages

Arch dam vs. gravity dam Buttress dam to gravity dam

• Less concrete • Less concrete , low cost
• More suite to V shaped narrow • Uplift pressure is not major
gorge factor in design
• Less affected by uplift pressure • Constructed on relatively
due its small width weak foundation
• Better on less strong • Water on the deck assist
foundation stability
• But need good rock on the • Better in heat dissipation so
flank , sophisticated form work has provision to speedy
, not constructed in very cold construction, provision to
climate (alternate freezing and raise
thawing) lead to spalling of • Need costly formwork ,
concrete , and slow reinforcement, not suite to
construction speed construct in cold climate
 Relative advantages
Rock fill to gravity dam Rock fill to earth dam

• Same as that of the • In expensive if rock

earth dam fragments are available
• Rapid construction
• Better withstand earth quake
• Can be constructed in
adverse climate
• But
• Need more strong
foundation
• Need heavy machine for
transport
 1.5 RESERVOIR

• A reservoir is a large, artificial lake created by constructing a

dam across a river. Broadly speaking, any water pool or a lake

may be termed a reservoir.

• However, the term reservoir in water resources engineering is

used in a restricted sense for a comparatively large body of

water stored on the upstream of a dam constructed for this

purpose.
Cont…

Reservoir

Dam Spillway
Cont…
• If a reservoir serves only one purpose, it is called a single-
purpose reservoir.
• On the other hand, if it serves more than one purpose, it is
termed a multipurpose reservoir.
• The various purposes served by a multipurpose seservoir
include:
I. Irrigation
II. Municipal and industrial water supply,
III. Flood control
IV. Hydropower,
V. Navigation,
VI. Recreation,
VII.Development of fish and wild life,
VIII.Pollution control and
IX. Mosquito control.
 Selection of Site for a Reservoir
A good site for a reservoir should have the following characteristics
A. Large storage capacity: The topography of the site should be such
that the reservoir has a large capacity to store water.
B. Suitable site for the dam: A suitable site for the dam should exist
on the downstream of the proposed reservoir. There should be good
foundation for the darn. The reservoir basin should have a narrow
opening in the valley so that the length of the dam is small. The cost of
the dam is often a controlling factor in the selection of a site for the
reservoir.
C. Watertightness of the reservoir: The geological conditions of the
reservoir site should be such that the reservoir basin is watertight. The
reservoir sites having pervious rocks are not suitable. The reservoir basins
having shales, slates, schists, gneiss, granite, etc. are generally suitable.
D. Good hydrological conditions
E. Narrow river valley
F. Less submergence on upstream
G. Ease to access,
H. Near by availability of construction material
I. Good site for camp
 Reservoir planning

• Investigation works
1. Engineering survey
– Thorough survey to prepare topomap and contour
maps
• To determine the capacity, inundation, compensation,
detail of land acquisition and communication route
2. Geologic survey to determine
• Dam foundation
• Characteristic of soil on the reservoir basin
• Availability of construction material
Cont…

3. Hydrologic survey to collect:

– Probable discharge form river gauge
– Rainfall record of the catchment from rain gauge of
past decade and estimate future discharge to fix
reservoir Capacity
– Determining discharge from empirical formulas
– And hence the capacity of the spill way is determined
as a function of the highest flood discharge
 Available Storage Capacity of a Reservoir
• The available storage capacity of a reservoir depends upon the
topography of the site and the height of dam.
• To determine the available storage capacity of a reservoir upt o a
certain level of water, engineering surveys are usually
conducted.
• For accurate determination of the capacity of a Reservoir, a
topographic survey of the reservoir area is usually conducted,
and a contour map of the area is prepared.
• The storage capacity and the water spread area at different
elevations can be determined from the contour map, as
explained below
A. Area-Elevation Curve
B. Elevation-Capacity Curve
C. Combined Diagram
Cont…
A. Area-Elevation Curve
• From the contour plan, the water spread area of the reservoir
at any elevation is determined by measuring the area enclosed
by the corresponding contour.
• Generally, a planimeter is used for measuring the area. An
elevation-area curve is then drawn between the surface area
as abscissa and the elevation as ordinate (Fig. below)
 Cont..
B. Elevation-Capacity Curve
• The storage capacity of the reservoir at any elevation is determined
from the water spread area at various elevations.
• The following formulae are commonly used to determine the storage
capacity (i.e. storage volumes).
1. Trapezoidal formula: According to the trapezoidal formula, the
storage volume between two successive contours of areas A1, and
A2 is given by

 Where h is the contour interval.

Therefore, the total volume V of the storage is given by

where n is the total number of areas.

 Cont…
2. Cone formula According to the cone formula, the storage volume between
two successive contours of areas A1 and A2 is given by

The total volume V is given by

3. Prismoidal formula: According to the prismoidal formula, the storage volume

between 3 successive contours is given by

The total volume is given by

where A3, A5, etc are the areas with odd numbers : A2, A4, A6, etc are the areas
with even numbers A1 and An are respectively, the first and the last area.
 Cont…
• The prismoidal formula is applicable only when there are odd
numbers of areas ( i.e. n should be an odd number).
• In the case of even number of areas, the volume up to the last but one
area is determined by the prismoidal formula, and that of the last
segment is determined by the trapezoidal formula.
Storage Volume from cross-sectional areas
 In the absence of adequate contour maps, the storage volume can be
computed from the cross-sectional areas of the river.
 Cross-sectional areas are obtained from the cross-sections of the river
taken upstream of the dam up to the u/s end of the reservoir.
 The volume is determined from the prismoidal formula,

• Where A1, A2 etc. are the area of the cross-section of the river up o the
full reservoir level and d is the distance between the sections. The
formula is applicable for odd number of sections.
Cont…

• An elevation-storage volume is plotted between the storage

volume as abscissa and the elevations as ordinate (Fig. below).
Storage capacity cont…
C. Combined Diagram
 It is the usual practice to plot both the elevation-area curve and
the elevation-storage curve on the same paper as fig below.
 The reader should carefully note the abscissa marking as the
areas and volumes increase in the opposite directions:
 Cont…

Submerged area: In addition to finding out the capacity of a

reservoir, the contour map of the reservoir can also be used to
determine the land and property which would be submerged when
the reservoir is filled up to various elevations.
• It would enable one to estimate the compensation to be paid to
the owners of the submerged property and land.
• The time schedule according to which the areas should be
evacuated, as the reservoir is gradually filled, can also be drawn.
 Example 1

• A reservoir has the following areas enclosed by contours at

various elevations. Determine the capacity of the reservoir
between elevations of 200 to 300.
Elevation 200 220 240 260 280. 300
Area of contour 150 175 210 270 320 400
(km2)
Use (a) trapezoidal formula, (b) prismoidal formula
• Solution (a)
Cont

Reservoir
 Solution cont..
B. In this case, there are even number of areas. The prismoidal formula is
applied to first 5 areas. By considering the first 5 areas,

Volume between the last two areas

Total volume V = V1 + V2 = 17800 + 7200 =25000 Mm3 = 2.5 Mha-m

In this case, the computed volumes from both the methods are equal. In
 YIELD AND CAPACITY OF RESERVOIR

– Reservoir yield: amount of water available in the reservoir

at a given time
– Specific yield : maximum amount available during critical
low flow
– Secondary yield: an excess of safe yield during high flow
– Average yield: the arithmetic average of the above
 Reservoir Yield
Controlled Release from a reservoir:
Often expressed as a ratio of % of mean annual flow. E.g., 70%
yield means the reservoir can provide a regulated release of 70% of
the mean annual flow.
The Yield depends on the active storage capacity of the reservoir
Reliability of Yield: probability that a
reservoir will be able to meet the demand
in any particular time interval (usually a
year)
Reliability = Ns/N
Ns is number of intervals in which
demand was met; N is the total number of
intervals
Firm Yield: can be met 100% of time
 Reservoir Storage

Total
capacity
Valley storage

•Dead Storage: water below the principal outlet (minimum pool level)
•Flood Pool (surcharge) Storage: storage between the normal and maximum pool level
•Live storage: storage between the normal flood level and the minimum pool level
•Bank storage: storage in the sides of the reservoir (bank) released later
•Valley storage: the base flow before the construction of dam
•Effective storage capacity* = live storage + the surcharge storage – the valley storage.
 1.6 SELECTION OF DAM SITE

1. Topography
• Narrow gorge opening wider upstream(fig. a)
• Down stream, of confluence point (fig. b)

200

200
200
400 230 300
200
300
300 Confluence 400
400
400

Fig b. dam site

Fig .a dam site
 SELECTION OF DAM SITE

• Suitable foundation • Material availability

• Spillway site • Water tightness of
reservoir
Hill lock

• shape of reservoir basin

• Small submerged area
• Accessibility
• Minimum overall cost
• Healthy surrounding
• Other considerations like
political
 SELECTION OF DAM SITE
• Factor
– Valley shape and topography
• Narrow V shape, good foundation, dictate arch dam
• If relatively wide with good foundation and V , gravity, buttress dam
• Low rolling plain with wide valley and alluvial foundation
embankment
– Geology
• Rocky foundation ideal for all type of dam
• Gravel and course sand foundation, embankment dams
• Fine sand & silt, for earth and small concrete dams
• Clay foundation, not proper for any b/c of low bearing capacity,
excessive settlement
– Availability of construction material,
– overall cost
– Spillway size and location if lager spillway is must and no
separate location for spillway then a gravity dam is
recommended
 SELECTION OF DAM SITE

2. Based on type of dam

• Earth quake hazards, embankment dams are better
• Climate extreme cold condition buttress and arch dams are not
recommended
• Diversion problem, earth dam is not recommended
• Environmental considerations, go for more merging to the natural
environment like earth dam than concrete
• Road way(wide), is needed gravity and earth dam
• Length and height of dam (earth and gravity dam respectively
• Life of dam , long life span gravity, moderate to embankment, if short
to timber
• Miscellaneous considerations, availability of type of machinery, earth
moving, excavation machines, mixing batching plant, cheap labor
 Investigation of dam site
It has three broadly classified stages/phases
1. Reconnaissance
– first survey to collect information about the site, topographical, geological, hydrological and
seismicity's data, are collected from agencies that help for future detail study. Helps to
estimate site/location of the dam, nature of the geology; foundation (no subsurface
exploration), stream flow, expected dam height, reservoir capacity, available head …)
2. Preliminary investigation
– Data generated here are more detail than reconnaissance. Survey is made on all sites found
suitable under former survey. Used for economic analysis and preliminary design of sites
selected in this survey.
– Used to prepare topomaps of sites, section profiles of the stream, subsurface exploration to
determine the faults, rock type cracks …runoff data, spillway size, reservoir capacity silt
carried by the river
– Investigation to locate construction material site,
– Public utility , telephone, water supply, road that may affect the final selection
3. Final investigation
– It is done only for the finally selected site through the above investigation, final estimate and
design are done.
– Detailed survey to get complete information, so that construction designs are prepared,
geologic data based on boring, and in-situ test, if foundation treatment is necessary detail on
level of grouting…, demarcation of land and people affected after construction, all data for
final estimation, design and location are collected, dam location, tunnel, coffer dam… are
marked
THE END !!