ADVANCED

SQL IMPLEMENTATION
PRESENTATION BY
Espigol, Janagap, Rojo, and Tayco
 TABLE CONTENT
• Introduction
• Relational Set Operators
• Join Operators
• Subqueries and Correlated Queries
• SQL Functions
 INTRODUCTION
In the ever-changing landscape of database management
and data analysis, Advanced SQL Implementation has
become a cornerstone for organizations seeking to harness
the full power of their data. SQL, or Structured Query
Language, is the standard language for interacting with
relational databases, and its advanced implementation
entails leveraging sophisticated techniques to optimize
queries, improve performance, and uncover deeper insights.
 RELATIONAL SET OPERATORS
Relational set operators play a pivotal role in the
manipulation and analysis of data within relational
database systems. These operators, including
UNION, INTERSECT, and EXCEPT (or MINUS in
some databases), enable you to combine,
compare, and manipulate data from different
tables, providing a powerful mechanism for
shaping and transforming datasets.
 RELATIONAL SET OPERATORS

They play a crucial role in constructing complex

queries and retrieving specific information based
on set relationships, enhancing the flexibility and
efficiency of your database queries.
 RELATIONAL SET OPERATORS ARE VITAL IN DATABASE
MANAGEMENT AND QUERYING FOR SEVERAL
REASONS:
Data Integration
·Set operators facilitate the integration of data from multiple tables by combining and
merging result sets.
·This is particularly useful when dealing with data distributed across different database
tables or sources.
Query Flexibility
·Set operators provide a flexible way to perform operations on sets of data, allowing for
dynamic and versatile query construction.
·Users can easily customize queries to meet specific information retrieval needs.
 RELATIONAL SET OPERATORS ARE VITAL IN DATABASE
MANAGEMENT AND QUERYING FOR SEVERAL
REASONS:
Comparative Analysis
·Set operators support comparative analysis by helping identify common elements
(INTERSECT), combine results (UNION), or find differences (EXCEPT) between data sets.
Enhanced Data Exploration
·Users can explore relationships within the data more effectively, gaining insights into
patterns and connections between different sets of information.
 RELATIONAL SET OPERATORS ARE VITAL IN DATABASE
MANAGEMENT AND QUERYING FOR SEVERAL
REASONS:
Complex Querying
·They enable the creation of more complex queries that involve logical combinations of
data, making it possible to express intricate conditions and relationships between
tables.
Efficient Data Retrieval
·Set operators contribute to the efficiency of data retrieval by allowing the database to
handle set operations internally, potentially reducing the need for multiple individual
queries.
 RELATIONAL SET OPERATORS ARE VITAL IN DATABASE
MANAGEMENT AND QUERYING FOR SEVERAL
REASONS:
Optimized Resource Utilization
·Proper use of set operators can lead to optimized resource utilization, as they enable
the execution of complex operations within the database engine rather than requiring
extensive post-processing.
Scalability
Set operators contribute to the scalability of database queries, allowing for the efficient
handling of large datasets and the execution of sophisticated operations.
 LET'S CONSIDER A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE OF HOW
RELATIONAL SET OPERATORS PLAY A VITAL ROLE IN
DATA INTEGRATION WITHIN A DATABASE
MANAGEMENT CONTEXT.
Scenario:
Suppose you work for a company that stores customer information in two separate
tables: one for basic customer details (customers_basic) and another for additional
contact information (customers_contact). Both tables have a common field, such as
customer_id.
Objective:
Your goal is to integrate the customer information from both tables into a
comprehensive list for marketing purposes.
 OVERVIEW OF RELATIONAL SET
OPERATORS
Relational set operators are special commands or
keywords used in relational database management
systems (RDBMS) to perform operations on sets of
data. These operators enable you to manipulate and
combine the results of queries, allowing for more
complex and flexible data retrieval and analysis. The
most common relational set operators include:
 OVERVIEW OF RELATIONAL SET
OPERATORS
UNION
·The UNION operator combines the result sets of two or
more SELECT statements into a single result set.
·It removes duplicate rows from the combined result
set.
 Scenario:
Consider a database with two tables, employees and
contractors, both having similar structures but containing
different sets of data.

Objective:
Combine the information of employees and contractors
into a single result set.
 Key Points:

1. Column Compatibility
The columns in both SELECT statements must be compatible
in terms of data types and order. In this example, both
SELECT statements have the same column structure.
2. Duplicate Rows
The UNION operator removes duplicate rows from the
combined result set. If you want to include duplicates, you
can use UNION ALL.

3. Column Aliasing
Column aliases (employee_type in this example) help to
distinguish the source of each row in the combined result set.
 OVERVIEW OF RELATIONAL SET
OPERATORS
INTERSECT
·The INTERSECT operator returns the common rows
between the result sets of two SELECT statements.
·It only includes rows that appear in both result sets.
 Example: Employee Skills Comparison

Consider two tables: employee_skills and

job_requirements. Each table contains a list of skills
associated with employees and job requirements,
respectively.
 OVERVIEW OF RELATIONAL SET
OPERATORS
EXCEPT (MINUS in some databases):
·The EXCEPT operator, or MINUS in some databases,
returns the rows from the first SELECT statement that
are not present in the result set of the second SELECT
statement.
·It helps identify the difference or set of rows unique to
the first result set.
 Sets in Mathematics Analogy:
·Relational set operators draw inspiration from set
theory in mathematics. In mathematics, a set is a
collection of distinct elements. Similarly, in a database, a
result set is a collection of rows retrieved from a table
or the output of a query.
 Combining and Comparing Data:
·These operators allow you to combine data from
different tables or query results, performing operations
similar to mathematical set operations.
 Common Syntax
·The syntax for using set operators involves placing the
operator between two SELECT statements, ensuring
that the columns in the SELECT statements have
compatible data types.
 JOIN OPERATORS

SQL join operators are essential tools for retrieving

data from multiple tables based on the
relationships between them. These operators
enable database professionals to combine and
correlate data from multiple tables, resulting in a
powerful tool for querying and analyzing large
datasets.
 Inner Join
The Inner Join operator is the most common type of
join. It returns rows from both tables where the join
condition is satisfied. Inner joins are used to retrieve
matching records from related tables.
 Left (Outer) Join
The Left Join operator returns all rows from the left
table and the matching rows from the right table. If
there is no match, NULL values are returned for
columns from the right table.
 Right (Outer) Join
The Right Join operator is similar to the Left Join but
returns all rows from the right table and the matching
rows from the left table. If there is no match, NULL
values are returned for columns from the left table.
 Full (Outer) Join
The Full Join operator returns all rows when there is a
match in either the left or right table. If there is no
match, NULL values are returned for columns from the
table without a match.
 Cross Join
The Cross Join operator returns the Cartesian product
of the two tables, meaning all possible combinations of
rows. It does not require a specific join condition.
 Self Join
A Self Join occurs when a table is joined with itself. This
is useful when working with hierarchical data or when
comparing records within the same table.
SUBQUERIES AND CORRELATED QUERIES

Subqueries and correlated queries are advanced

SQL techniques that allow database professionals
to create queries that are more complex and
sophisticated. These features allow users to
retrieve, filter, and manipulate data in ways that go
beyond what basic SELECT statements can do.
 Subqueries
A subquery is a query nested within another query,
often enclosed within parentheses. Subqueries can be
used in various parts of a SQL statement, such as the
SELECT clause, FROM clause, WHERE clause, or HAVING
clause. They provide a powerful mechanism for
performing operations on the result sets of inner
queries before using them in outer queries.
 Applications of Subqueries

Filtering Data: Subqueries are commonly used in the

WHERE clause to filter results based on conditions
derived from another table.

Calculations: Subqueries can be employed in the

SELECT clause to perform calculations or aggregations
on subsets of data.
 Correlated Queries
A correlated subquery is a type of subquery that
references columns from the outer query. Unlike non-
correlated subqueries, correlated subqueries are
dependent on the outer query, and their results can
change based on the values in the outer query. This
enables more dynamic and context-dependent
operations.
 Applications of Subqueries

Comparisons with Outer Query: Correlated queries are

useful when you need to compare each row in the outer
query with the results of a subquery.
Dynamic Filtering: Correlated subqueries allow for
dynamic filtering based on values from the outer query,
providing a flexible approach to data retrieval.
Context-Dependent Aggregations: Correlated queries are
effective for performing aggregations that depend on
the context of each row in the outer query.
 Advantages of Subqueries and Correlated Queries

Readability and Maintainability: Subqueries allow for the

modularization of complex queries, making them more
readable and easier to maintain.
Flexibility: Correlated queries provide a dynamic and
context-dependent approach to data retrieval, allowing
for more flexible and nuanced operations.
 Advantages of Subqueries and Correlated Queries

Optimization: In some cases, the database optimizer may

choose an optimal execution plan for subqueries,
leading to improved performance.
 SQL FUNCTIONS

SQL functions are essential in database

management because they provide a set of pre-
built operations that can be used to manipulate
and analyze data.
These functions can carry out a wide range of
tasks, from simple arithmetic operations to
complex data transformations and aggregations.
CATEGORIES OF SQL FUNCTIONS

Scalar Functions: Operate on a single value and

return a single result.

Examples include mathematical functions (e.g., ABS,

ROUND), string functions (e.g., CONCAT,
SUBSTRING), and date functions (e.g., DATEPART,
GETDATE).
 CATEGORIES OF SQL FUNCTIONS

Aggregate Functions: Perform calculations on a set of

values and return a single value.

Common aggregate functions include COUNT, SUM,

AVG, MIN, and MAX. They are often used with the
GROUP BY clause for summary reporting.
 CATEGORIES OF SQL FUNCTIONS

Window Functions: Operate on a specific "window"

of rows defined by an OVER clause.

These functions include ROW_NUMBER, RANK,

DENSE_RANK, and LAG/LEAD. They are used for tasks
such as ranking, moving averages, and cumulative sums.
 CATEGORIES OF SQL FUNCTIONS

Table-Valued Functions: Return a table as a result.

These functions can be used in the FROM clause of
a SELECT statement.

Examples include the inline table-valued function and the

multi-statement table-valued function.
 CATEGORIES OF SQL FUNCTIONS

System Functions: Provide information about the

database or server environment.

Examples include DATABASE_NAME(), @@VERSION,

and USER_NAME().
APPLICATIONS OF SQL FUNCTIONS
Data Cleaning: String functions can be used to clean and
format data, removing unwanted characters or spaces.

Date Manipulation: Date functions assist in performing

operations on date and time values, such as extracting
components, calculating differences, or formatting output.

Row-Level Calculations: Window functions enable

calculations based on a specified range of rows, allowing
for detailed analysis and reporting.
 ADVANTAGES OF SQL FUNCTIONS
Code Reusability: Functions facilitate code reuse by
encapsulating specific operations, reducing redundancy
in SQL queries.

Readability: Functions enhance the readability of queries

by providing descriptive and modular components,
making the code easier to understand and maintain.
 ADVANTAGES OF SQL FUNCTIONS
Consistency: Using functions ensures consistent
application of operations across different parts of the
database, promoting data integrity.

Performance Optimization: Well-designed functions can

contribute to query optimization by allowing the
database engine to execute operations more efficiently.