17CI09 Data Base Management Systems

Program & Semester: B.Tech & III SEM

AI&DS
Academic Year: 2023 - 24

U N IT V: Physical Database Design

Overview of Physical Storage
Cache
 The cache is the fastest and most costly form of storage.
 Cache memory is relatively small; cache effects when designing
query processing data structures and algorithms.
Main memory.
 The storage medium used for data that are available to be operated on
is main memory.
 The general-purpose machine instructions operate on main memory.
 Although main memory may contain several gigabytes of data on a personal
computer, or even hundreds of gigabytes of data in large server systems, it
is generally too small (or too expensive) for storing the entire database.
Flash memory.
 Flash memory differs from main memory in that stored data are retained
even if power is turned off (or fails).
 There are two types of flash memNAND flash has a much higher storage
capacity for a given cost, and is widely used for data storage in devices s
uch as cameras, music players, and cell phones, and ory, called N A N D and
N O R flash. O f these, increasingly, in laptop computers as well.
Flash memory is alsowidely used for storing data in “USB keys,” which can be
plugged into the Universal Serial Bus (USB) slots of computing devices.
Magnetic-disk storage
The primary medium for the long-term online storage of data is the
magnetic disk.
Usually, the entire database is stored on magnetic disk.The system must
move the data from disk to main memory so that they can be accessed.
Optical storage
 The most popular forms of optical storage are the compact disk (CD),
and the digital video disk (DVD).
 The optical disks used in read-only compact disks (CD-ROM) or read-only
digital video disks (DVD-ROM) cannot be written, but are supplied with
data pre-recorded.
 There are also “record-once” versions of compact disk (called CD-R)
and digital video disk (called DVD-R and DVD+R), which can be
written only once.
Tape storage
Tape storage is used primarily for backup and archival data. Although
magnetic tape is cheaper than disks, access to data is much slower, because
the tape must be accessed sequentially from the beginning. For this reason,
tape storage is referred to as sequential-access storage.
Magnetic Disk
Magnetic disks provide the bulk of secondary storage for modern computer
systems.A very large database may require hundreds of disks. In recent
years, flash-memory storage sizes have grown rapidly, and flash storage is
increasingly becoming a competitor to magnetic disk storage for several
applications.
Physical Characteristics of Disks
Each disk platter has a flat, circular shape. Its two surfaces are covered
with a magnetic material, and information is recorded on the surfaces.
There is a read–write head positioned just above the surface of the platter.The
disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors.
A sector is the smallest unit of information that can be read from or written
to the disk.
The read– write head stores information on a sector magnetically.
A disk typically contains many platters, and the read–write heads of all the
tracks
are mounted on a single assembly called a disk arm, and move together.
RAID (Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks)
 RAID, or “Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks” is a technique which
makes use of a combination of multiple disks instead of using a single disk for
increased performance, data redundancy or both.
 Data redundancy, although taking up extra space, adds to disk reliability. This
means, in case of disk failure, if the same data is also backed up onto another
disk, we can retrieve the data and go on with the operation.

 If the data is spread across just multiple disks without the RAID technique, the
loss of a single disk can affect the entire data.
 RAID is very transparent to the underlying system.
 To the host system, it appears as a single big disk presenting itself as a linear
array of blocks. This allows older technologies to be replaced by RAID
without making too many changes in the existing code.
 RAID System is evaluated by Reliability, Availability, Performance, Capacity.
 There are 7 levels of RAID schemes. These schemas are as RAID 0, RAID 1,
...., RAID 6.
RAID-0 (Striping)
 RAID level 0 provides data stripping, i.e., a data can place across
multiple disk.

 Instead of placing just one block into a disk at a time, we can work with two
(or more) blocks placed into a disk before moving on to the next one.
Evaluation
Reliability: 0
There is no duplication of data. Hence, a block once lost cannot be recovered.
Capacity: N*B
 The entire space is being used to store data. Since there is no duplication, N disks
each having B blocks are fully utilized.
RAID-1 (Mirroring)
 More than one copy of each block is stored in a separate disk. Thus, every block
has two (or more) copies, lying on different disks.

 The above figure shows a RAID-1 system with mirroring level 2.

 Every write of a disk block involves a write on both disks.
 RAID 0 was unable to tolerate any disk failure. But RAID 1 is capable
of reliability.
Evaluation:
Assume a RAID system with mirroring level 2.
Reliability: 1 to N/2
 1 disk failure can be handled for certain, because blocks of that disk would
have duplicates on some other disk.
 If we are lucky enough and disks 0 and 2 fail, then again this can be handled as
the blocks of these disks have duplicates on disks 1 and 3. So, in the best case,
N/2 disk failures can be handled.
Capacity: N*B/2
 Only half the space is being used to store data. The other half is just a mirror
to the already stored data.
RAID 2(Error- Correcting Code)
 RAID 2 consists of bit-level striping using hamming code parity.
 In this level, each data bit in a word is recorded on a separate disk and ECC
(Error- Correcting Codes) of data words is stored on different set disks.
 Due to its high cost and complex structure, this level is not commercially used.
The same performance can be achieved by RAID 3 at a lower cost.
Evaluation:
 This level uses one designated drive to store parity.
 It uses the hamming code for error detection.
 It requires an additional drive for error detection

RAID 3 (Byte-level striping )

 RAID 3 consists of byte-level striping with dedicated parity.
 In this level, the parity information is stored for each disk section and
written to a dedicated parity drive.
 In case of drive failure, the parity drive is accessed, and data is reconstructed
from the remaining devices. Once the failed drive is replaced, the missing
data can be restored on the new drive.
 In this level, data can be transferred in bulk. Thus high-speed data
transmission is possible.

Evaluation:
 In this level, data is regenerated using parity drive.
 It contains high data transfer rates.
 In this level, data is accessed in parallel.
 It required an additional drive for parity.
 It gives a slow performance for operating on small sized files.

RAID 4 (Block-Level Striping with Dedicated

Parity)
Instead of duplicating data, this adopts a parity-based approach.
Parity is calculated using a simple XOR function. If the data bits are
0,0,0,1 the parity bit is XOR(0,0,0,1) = 1. If the data bits are 0,1,1,0 the
parity bit is XOR(0,1,1,0) = 0. A simple approach is that even number
of ones results in parity 0, and an odd number of ones results in parity
1.

Evaluation:
 Reliability: 1
RAID-4 allows recovery of at most 1 disk failure (because of the way parity
works). If more than one disk fails, there is no way to recover the data.
 Capacity: (N-1)*B
One disk in the system is reserved for storing the parity. Hence, (N-1) disks are
made available for data storage, each disk having B blocks.
RAID-5 (Block-Level Striping with Distributed Parity)
This is a slight modification of the RAID-4 system where the only difference
is that the parity rotates among the drives.

This was introduced to make the random write performance better.

Evaluation:
Reliability: 1
 RAID-5 allows recovery of at most 1 disk failure (because of the way parity
works). If more than one disk fails, there is no way to recover the data. This
is identical to RAID-4.
Capacity: (N-1)*B
 Overall, space equivalent to one disk is utilized in storing the parity. Hence,
(N-1) disks are made available for data storage, each disk having B blocks.
RAID-6 (Block-Level Striping with Dual Distributed
Parity)
 This level is an extension of RAID 5. It contains block-level stripping with 2
parity bits.
 In RAID 6, you can survive 2 concurrent disk failures.
 RAID 6 plays its part where you can survive two concurrent disk failures before
you run out of options
File Organization
A file is organized logically as a sequence of records. These records are
mapped onto disk blocks.
⚫ A page is collection of slots, each of which contains a record. Each page assigned
an page id to identify in the File.
⚫ A record is identified by using the pair (page id, slot number); this is the record id
(rid). Alternative approaches to managing slots on a page
⚫ In addition to the information about records on the page, a page usually contains
additional file-level information.

Fixed-Length Records
⚫ All records on the page are guaranteed to be of the same length, record slots arc
uniform and can be arranged consecutively within a page.
⚫ When a record is inserted into the page, we must locate an empty slot and place the
record.
⚫ For inserting a record into empty slot we must find where we have a empty slot it
can be done in two ways
⚫ The first alternative is to store records in the first N. whenever a record is deleted,
we move the last record on the page into the vacated slot.
 This format allows us to locate the ith record on a page by a simple offset
calculation, and all empty slots appear together at the end of the page.
 This approach docs not work if there are external references to the record
⚫ The second alternative is to handle deletions by using an array of bits, one
per slot, to keep track of free slot information.
⚫ Locating records on the page requires scanning the bit array to find
slots whose bit is on; when a record is deleted, its bit is turned off.

Variable-Length Records
⚫ In variable length record type we cannot divide the page into a fixed
collection of slots. The problem is that, when a new record is to be inserted,
we have to find an empty slot of just the right length.
⚫ When a record is deleted, we must move records to fill the hole created by
the deletion, to ensure that all the free space on the page is contiguous
⚫ The most flexible organization for variable-length records is to maintain a
directory of slots for each page, with a (record offset (Location), record
length(size)) pair per slot.
⚫ The first component (record offset) is a 'pointer' to the record.
⚫ Deletion is done by setting the record offset to -1.
⚫ Records can be moved around on the page because the rid, which is the page
number and slot number does not change when the record is moved; only
the record offset stored in the slot changes.
RECORD FORMATS
⚫ While choosing a way to organize the fields of a record, we must consider
whether the fields of the record are of fixed or variable length and consider the
cost of various operations on the record.
⚫ Information common to all records of a given record type (such as the number
of fields and field types) is stored in the system catalog, which can be thought
of as a description of the contents of a database, maintained by the DBMS.

Fixed-Length Records
⚫ In a fixed-length record, each field has a fixed length, and the number of
fields is also fixed.
⚫ The fields of such a record can be stored consecutively, and given the address of
the record, the address of a particular field can be calculated using information
about the lengths of preceding fields.
Variable-Length Records
⚫ In the relational model, every record in a relation contains the same number of
fields. If the number of fields is fixed, a record is of variable length only
because some of its fields are of variable length.
⚫ One possible organization is to store fields consecutively, separated by
delimiters . This organization requires a scan of the record to locate a desired
field.
⚫ Another possible organization is to reserve some space at the beginning of a
record for use as an array of integer offsets.
⚫ The ith integer in this array is the starting address of the ith field value
relative
to the start of the record.
⚫ we also store an offset to the end of the record; this offset is needed to
recognize where the last held ends.
File Organization
A database consist of a huge amount of data. The data is grouped within a table in
RDBMS, and each table have related records. A user can see that the data is stored
in form of tables, but in actual this huge amount of data is stored in physical
memory in form of files.
File : A file is named collection of related information that is recorded on
secondary storage such as magnetic disks, magnetic tables and optical
disks.
File Organization refers to the logical relationships among various records that
constitute the file, particularly with respect to the means of identification and
access to any specific record.

Types of File Organizations

 Sequential File Organization
 Heap File Organization
 Hash File Organization
 B+ Tree File Organization
 Clustered File Organization
Sequential File Organization
The easiest method for file Organization is Sequential method. In this method the
file are stored one after another in a sequential manner. There are two ways to
implement this method:
 Pile Method
 Sorted File Method
Pile Method
This method is quite simple, in which we store the records in a sequence i.e one
after other in the order in which they are inserted into the tables
Advantages
 Fast and efficient method for huge amount of data.
 Simple design.
 Files can be easily stored in magnetic tapes i.e cheaper storage mechanism.
Disadvantages
 Time wastage as we cannot jump on a particular record that is required, but we
must move in a sequential manner which takes our time.
 Sorted file method is inefficient as it takes time and space for sorting records.

Heap File Organization

 Heap File Organization works with data blocks.

 In this method records are inserted at the end of the file, into the data blocks.
 No Sorting or Ordering is required in this method.
 If a data block is full, the new record is stored in some other block, Here the
other data block need not be the very next data block, but it can be any
block in the memory.
 It is the responsibility of DBMS to store and manage the new records.
If a new block is inserted
Advantages
 Fetching and retrieving records is faster than sequential record but only in
case of small databases.
 When there is a huge number of data needs to be loaded into the database at
a time, then this method of file Organization is best suited.
Disadvantages
 Problem of unused memory blocks.
 Inefficient for larger databases.

Hash File Organization

 Hashing is an efficient technique to directly search the location of desired data
on the disk without using index structure.
 Data is stored at the data blocks whose address is generated by using hash
function.
 The memory location where these records are stored is called as data block or
data bucket.
Data bucket
Data buckets are the memory locations where the records are stored. These
buckets are also considered as Unit Of Storage.
Hash Function
 Hash function is a mapping function that maps all the set of search keys
to actual record address.
 Generally, hash function uses primary key to generate the hash index.
 Hash function can be simple mathematical function to any
complex mathematical function.
Hashing is further divided into two sub categories :
 Static Hashing
 Dynamic Hashing
Static Hashing
In static hashing, when a search-key value is provided, the hash function always
computes the same address.
For example, if we want to generate address for STUDENT_ID = 76 using mod
(5) hash function, it always result in the same bucket address 1. There will not be
any changes to the bucket address here.
Hence number of data buckets in the memory for this static hashing remains
constant throughout.
Insertion
When a new record is inserted into the table, The hash function h generate
a bucket address for the new record based on its hash key K.
Bucket address = h(K)
Searching
When a record needs to be searched, The same hash function is used to
retrieve the bucket address for the record.
If we want to retrieve whole record for ID 76, and if the hash function is mod (5)
on that ID, the bucket address generated would be 1. Then we will directly got to
address 1 and retrieve the whole record for ID 76. Here ID acts as a hash key.
Deletion
If we want to delete a record, Using the hash function we will first fetch the
record which is supposed to be deleted. Then we will remove the records for that
address in memory.
Updation
The data record that needs to be updated is first searched using hash function,
and then the data record is updated.
When, we want to insert some new records into the file, but the data bucket
address generated by the hash function is not empty or the data already exists
in address. This becomes a critical situation to handle. This situation in the
that
static hashing is called bucket overflow.
⚫ Open Hashing
⚫ Closed hashing
⚫ Quadratic probing
⚫ Double Hashing
Open Hashing
Open hashing method, next available data block is used to enter the new record,
instead of overwriting older one. This method is also called linear probing.

Closed hashing
In Closed hashing method, a new data bucket is allocated with same address and is
linked it after the full data bucket. This method is also known as overflow
chaining.
Quadratic probing
Quadratic probing is an open-addressing scheme where we look for i2‘th slot in
i’th iteration if the given hash value x collides in the hash table.
How Quadratic Probing is done?
Let hash(x) be the slot index computed using the hash
function. If the slot hash(x) % S is full, then we try (hash(x) +
1*1) % S.
If (hash(x) + 1*1) % S is also full, then we try (hash(x) + 2*2) %
S. If (hash(x) + 2*2) % S is also full, then we try (hash(x) + 3*3)
% S.
This process is repeated for all the values of i until an empty slot is
found

Double hashing
Double hashing is a collision resolving technique in Open Addressed Hash tables.
Double hashing uses the idea of applying a second hash function to key when a
collision occurs.

Double hashing can be done using :

(hash1(key) + i * hash2(key)) % TABLE_SIZE
Dynamic Hashing
In Dynamic hashing, data buckets grows or shrinks (added or removed
dynamically) as the records increases or decreases. Dynamic hashing is also
known as extended hashing.
Extendible Hashing
Extendible Hashing is a dynamic hashing method where in directories, and
buckets are used to hash data. It is an aggressively flexible method in which the
hash function also experiences dynamic changes.
Directories
These containers store pointers to buckets. Each directory is given a unique id
which may change each time when expansion takes place. The hash function
returns this directory id which is used to navigate to the appropriate bucket.
Number of Directories = 2^Global Depth.
Buckets
They store the hashed keys. Directories point to buckets. A bucket may contain
more than one pointers to it if its local depth is less than the global depth.
Global Depth
It is associated with the Directories. They denote the number of bits which are
used by the hash function to categorize the keys. Global Depth = Number of bits
in directory id.
Local Depth
 It is the same as that of Global Depth except for the fact that Local Depth
is associated with the buckets and not the directories.
 Local depth in accordance with the global depth is used to decide the
action
that to be performed in case an overflow occurs.
 Local Depth is always less than or equal to the Global Depth.

Bucket Splitting:
When the number of elements in a bucket exceeds a particular size, then
the bucket is split into two parts.
Directory Expansion
Directory Expansion Takes place when a bucket overflows. Directory Expansion
is performed when the local depth of the overflowing bucket is equal to the global
depth.
Example of hashing the following elements: 16,4,6,22,24,10,31,7,9,20,26.
Bucket Size: 3 (Assume)
Hash Function: Suppose the global depth is X. Then the Hash Function returns
X LSBs.
16- 10000 , 4- 00100 , 6- 00110 , 22- 10110 , 24- 11000 , 10- 01010 ,
31- 11111, 7- 00111, 9- 01001 , 20- 10100 , 26- 11010
The drawback of static hashing is that that it does not expand or shrink
dynamically as the size of the database grows or shrinks

Dynamic Hashing
In Dynamic hashing, data buckets grows or shrinks as the records increases or
decreases. Dynamic hashing is also known as extended hashing.

B+ Tree File Organization

B+ Tree, as the name suggests, It uses a tree like structure to store records in File.
It uses the concept of Key indexing where the primary key is used to sort the
records.
B+ Tree is very much like binary search tree, with the only difference that instead
of just two children, it can have more than two.
All the information is stored in leaf node and the intermediate nodes acts as
pointer to the leaf nodes.
The information in leaf nodes always remain a sorted sequential linked list.

Advantages
Tree traversal is easier and faster.
Searching becomes easy as all records are stored only in leaf nodes and are sorted
sequential linked list.
There is no restriction on B+ tree size. It may grows/shrink as the size of data
increases/decreases.
Disadvantages
Inefficient for static tables.
Cluster File Organization
In cluster file organization, two or more related tables/records are stored
withing same file known as clusters.
These files will have two or more tables in the same data block and the
key attributes which are used to map these table together are stored only
once.
Thus it lowers the cost of searching and retrieving various records in different
files as they are now combined and kept in a single cluster.
For example we have two tables or relation Employee and Department. These
table are related to each other
These table are allowed to combine using a join operation and can be seen in
a
cluster file.

If we must insert, update or delete any record we can directly do so. Data is sorted
based on the primary key or the key with which searching is done. Cluster key is
the key with which joining of the table is performed.

There are two ways to implement this method:

 Indexed Clusters
 Hash Clusters
Indexed Clusters:
In Indexed clustering the records are group based on the cluster key and
stored together. The above example of the Employee and Department
relationship is an example of Indexed Cluster where the records are based
on the Department ID.
Hash Clusters:
This is very much similar to indexed cluster with only difference that
instead of storing the records based on cluster key, we generate hash key
value and store the records with same hash key value.
Advantages of Cluster file organization
• The cluster file organization is used when there is a frequent request for joining
the tables with same joining condition.
• It provides the efficient result when there is a 1:M mapping between the tables.

Disadvantages of Cluster file organization

• This method has the low performance for the very large database.
• If there is any change in joining condition, then this method cannot use. If we
change the condition of joining then traversing the file takes a lot of time.
• This method is not suitable for a table with a 1:1 condition.
Comparison Of File Organizations:
Sequentia Heap/ Hash ISAM B+ tree Cluster
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Direct
Method Stored as Stored at Stored Address Stored in Frequentl
of they the end at the index is a tree y joined
storing come or of the hash appende like tables
sorted as file. address d to the structure are
they But the generate record clubbed
come address d into one
in the file
memory based
is on
random. cluster
key
Types Pile file Static Dense, Indexed
and and Sparse, and
sorted file dynamic multilev Hash
Method hashing el
indexing
Design Simple Simplest Medium Complex Complex Simple

Desig
Indexing
 Indexing is a way to optimize the performance of a database by minimizing
the number of disk accesses required when a query is processed.
 It is a data structure technique which is used to quickly locate and access
the
data in a database.
Indexes are created using a few database columns.
The first column is the Search key that contains a copy of the primary key or
candidate key of the table.
The second column is the Data Reference or Pointer which contains a set of
pointers holding the address of the disk block where that particular key value can
be found.
Classification Of Index
Dense Index
 For every search key value in the data file, there is an index record.
 This record contains the search key and also a reference to the first
data record with that search key value.
Sparse Index
The index record appears only for a few items in the data file. Each
item points to a block as shown.
 Types of Indexing
1. Single-level Indexing
 Primary indexing
 Clustering Indexing
 Secondary Indexing
2. Multilevel Indexing
 B Trees
 B+ Trees

Primary indexing
It is defined mainly on the primary key of the data-file, in which the
data-
file is already ordered based on the primary key.
⚫ Primary Index is an ordered file whose records are of fixed length
with two fields. The first field of the index replicates the primary key
of the data file in an ordered manner, and the second field of the
ordered file contains a pointer that points to the data-block where a
record containing the key is available.
⚫ The first record of each block is called the Anchor record or Block
anchor. There exists a record in the primary index file for every block
of the data-file.
⚫ The average number of blocks using the Primary Index is = log2B +
1, where B is the number of index blocks.
Clustered index:
Clustered index is created only when both the following conditions
satisfy
1. The data or file, that you are moving into secondary memory should
be in sequential or sorted order.
2. There should be non key value, meaning it can have repeated values.

⚫ Whenever you apply clustered indexing in a table, it will perform

sorting in that table only. You can create only one clustered index in a
table like primary key. Clustered index is as same as dictionary
where the data is arranged by alphabetical order.
⚫ In clustered index, index contains pointer to block but not direct data.
Secondary Index or Non-clustered Index:
⚫ The secondary Index in DBMS can be generated by a field which has a
unique value for each record, and it should be a candidate key. It is also
known as a non-clustering index.
⚫ This two-level database indexing technique is used to reduce the
mapping size of the first level. For the first level, a large range of
numbers is selected because of this; the mapping size always remains
small.
Multilevel Indexing:
With the growth of the size of the database, indices also grow. As the index is
stored in the main memory, a single-level index might become too large a size to
store with multiple disk accesses. The multilevel indexing segregates the main
block into various smaller blocks so that the same can stored in a single block.
The outer blocks are divided into inner blocks which in turn are pointed to the
data blocks. This can be easily stored in the main memory with fewer overheads.
B Tree
 B-Tree is a self-balancing search tree.
 B Tree is a specialized m-way tree that can be widely used for disk access.
 A B-Tree of order m can have at most m-1 keys and m children.
 One of the main reason of using B tree is its capability to store large number of
keys in a single node and large key values by keeping the height of the tree
relatively small.

Properties of B-Tree
 A B-Tree is defined by the term degree or Order ‘M’. The value of M depends
upon disk block size.
 Every node in a B-Tree except the root node and the leaf node contain at least
M/2 children.
 The root node must have at least 2 child nodes.
 All nodes (including root) may contain at most M – 1 keys.
 Every node in a B-Tree contains at most M children.
 All leaves are at the same level.
 All keys of a node are sorted in increasing order. The child between two keys
k1 and k2 contains all keys in the range from k1 and k2.
A B tree of order 4 is shown
below

While performing some operations on B Tree, any property of B Tree may violate
such as number of minimum children a node can have. To maintain the
properties of B Tree, the tree may split or join.
Operations
Searching
Insertion
Deletion
Searching
Searching in B Trees is like that in Binary search tree.
For example, if we search for an item 49 in the following B Tree. The process will
something like following :

Compare item 49 with root node 78. since 49 < 78 hence, move to its left sub-
tree.
Since, 40<49<56, traverse right sub-tree of 40.
49>45, move to right. Compare 49.
match found, return.
Searching in a B tree depends
upon the height of the tree. The
search algorithm
takes O(log n) time to search any
Insertion
Insertions are done at the leaf node level.
The following algorithm needs to be followed in order to insert an item into
B Tree.
 Traverse the B Tree in order to find the appropriate leaf node at which the node
can be inserted.
 If the leaf node contain less than m-1 keys then insert the element in the
increasing order.
 Else, if the leaf node contains m-1 keys, then follow the following steps.
 Insert the new element in the increasing order of elements.
 Split the node into the two nodes at the median.
 Push the median element upto its parent node.
 If the parent node also contain m-1 number of keys, then split it too by
following the same steps.
DELETION
 Deletion from a B-tree is more complicated than insertion, because we
can delete a key from any node-not just a leaf.
 when we delete a key from an internal node, we will have to rearrange
the node’s children.
 Just as we had to ensure that a node didn’t get too big due to insertion. we
must ensure that a node doesn’t get too small during deletion.
 A simple approach to deletion might have to back up if a node (other than
the root) along the path to where the key is to be deleted has the minimum
number of keys.
 Since most of the keys in a B-tree are in the leaves, deletion operations
are most often used to delete keys from leaves.
 The recursive delete procedure then acts in one downward pass through
the tree, without having to back up.
 When deleting a key in an internal node, however, the procedure makes
a downward pass through the tree but may have to return to the node
from which the key was deleted to replace the key with its predecessor
or successor.
 No of children must be according to the ceil of m/2.
After Deleting 6 the tree loos like
After deleting 13 the tree looks
like

After deleting 7. Two leaf nodes are added to form the new node
For a B-Tree of order
M  Each internal node has up to M-1 keys to search
 Each internal node has between M/2 and M
 children
Depth of B-Tree storing N items is O(log M/2
N)
Run timeis:O(log M) to binary search which branch to take at each
node. But M is small compared to N.
 Total time to find an item is O(depth*log M) = O(log N)

The drawback of B-tree is that it stores the data pointer (a pointer to the
disk file block containing the key value), corresponding to a particular
key value, along with that key value in the node of a B-tree.
B+ tree
 B+ tree eliminates the above drawback by storing
data pointers only at the leaf nodes of the tree.
 The structure of leaf nodes of a B+ tree is quite
different
from the structure of internal nodes of the B tree.
 The leaf nodes are linked to provide ordered access to
the records.
 The leaf nodes form the first level of index, with the
internal nodes forming the other levels of a
multilevel index.
 Some of the key values of the leaf nodes also appear in
the internal nodes, to simply act as a medium to control
the searching of a record.
 B+ tree ‘a’ and ‘b’, one for the internal nodes and the
other for the external (or leaf) nodes.
Internal Node structure

External Node (Leaf Node)

Using the Pnext pointer it is viable to traverse all the leaf nodes, just like a
linked list, thereby achieving ordered access to the records stored in the disk.

A B+ tree with ‘l’ levels can store more entries in its internal nodes compared to
a B-tree having the same ‘l’ levels. This accentuates the significant improvement
made to the search time for any given key.
 Operations on B+ Tree
 Searching.
 Insertion.
 Deletion.
Searching
 Searching just like in a binary search tree.
 Starts at the root, works down to the leaf level.
 Does a comparison of the search value and the current
“separation value”, goes left or right.
 Since no structure change in a B+ tree during a searching
process.
 So just compare the key value with the data in the tree, then give
the result back.
Insertion
 A search is first performed, using the value to be added.
 After the search is completed, the location for the new value is
known.
 If the tree is empty, add to the root.
 Once the root is full, split the data into 2 leaves, using the root to
hold
 INSERTION

insert 28 into the below 5 ordered

tree.

After inserting 28 the tree looks as

below.
 insert 70 into the below 5 ordered
tree.

 While we are inserting the value 70 in leaf node 3 it exceeds

the max number of keys (m-1).
 We need to split the leaf node by sending the mean value to the
root
 After updating the tree looks as follows
Deletion
 Deletion, like insertion, begins with a search.
 When the item to be deleted is located and removed, the tree must
be checked to make sure no rules are violated.
 The rule to focus on is to ensure that each node has at least ceil (n/2)
pointers.
Example
Delete 60 from the below tree
 After deleting 60 from tree the rules specified for B+ tree
are dissatisfied
 To make it again a B+ tree it should be rearranged as
follows

The total time complexity of the B+ tree search operation is O(t log
tn). Where O(t) is time complexity for each linear search.
The time complexity of the insertion algorithm is O(t log tn).
Advantages of B+ Trees:
1. Records can be fetched in equal number of disk accesses.
2. Height of the tree remains balanced and less compare to b-tree.
3. We can access the data stored in a B+ tree sequentially as well as
directly.
4. Keys are used for indexing.
5. Faster search queries as the data is stored only on the leaf nodes.
6. Deletion will never be a complexed process since element will always
be deleted from the leaf nodes in B+ trees .whereas in B tree,
deletion of internal nodes are so complicated and time consuming.

Disadvantages of B+ Trees:
⚫ Any search will end at leaf node only.
⚫ Time complexity for every search results in O(h).
⚫ Extra insertion and deletion overhead, space overhead..
17CI09 Data Base Management Systems
Program & Semester: B.Tech & III SEM
AI&DS
Academic Year: 2023 - 24

U N IT V : Interfacing And Interacting

With N o SQL
Introduction to N o S Q L
A NoSQL originally referring to non SQL or non relational is a database that
provides a mechanism for storage and retrieval of data.
NoSQL databases are used in real-time web applications and big data and their
use are increasing over time. NoSQL systems are also sometimes called Not only
SQL to emphasize the fact that they may support SQL-like query languages.
The data structures used by NoSQL databases are different from those used
by default in relational databases which makes some operations faster in
NoSQL.
In relational database you need to create the table, define schema, set the data
types of fields etc before you can actually insert the data. In NoSQL you don’t
have to worry about that, you can insert, update data on the go.
There are certain situations where you would prefer relational database over
NoSQL, however when you are dealing with huge amount of data then NoSQL
database is your best choice.
Difference between SQL(RDBMS) and NoSQL.
Type
SQL databases are primarily called as Relational Databases (RDBMS)
NoSQL database are primarily called as non-relational or distributed
database. Language
SQL databases defines and manipulates data based structured query language
(SQL). SQL is one of the most versatile and widely-used options available
which makes it a safe choice especially for great complex queries.
SQL requires you to use predefined schemas to determine the structure of
your data before you work with it. Also all of your data must follow the
same structure.
NoSQL database has dynamic schema for unstructured data. Data is stored in
many ways which means it can be document-oriented, column-oriented,
graph- based or organized as a KeyValue store. This flexibility means that
documents can be created without having defined structure first.
Scalability
In almost all situations SQL databases are vertically scalable. This means that
you can increase the load on a single server by increasing things like RAM,
CPU or SSD.
NoSQL databases are horizontally scalable. This means that you handle
more traffic by sharding, or adding more servers in your NoSQL database
Structure
SQL databases are table-based.
NoSQL databases are either key-value pairs, document-based, graph
databases or wide-column stores.
Property followed
SQL databases follow ACID properties (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation
and
Durability).
NoSQL database follows Brewers CAP theorem (Consistency, Availability and
Partition tolerance).
Support
Great support is available for all SQL database from their vendors. Also a lot of
independent consultations are there who can help you with SQL database for a
very large scale deployments.
NoSQL databases still have to rely on community support and only limited
outside experts are available for setting up and deploying your large scale NoSQL
deployments.
Examples
SQL databases: PostgreSQL, MySQL, Oracle and Microsoft SQL Server.
NoSQL database: Redis, RavenDB Cassandra, MongoDB, BigTable, HBase,
Neo4j and CouchDB.
The C A P
Theorem
The CAP theorem is used to makes system designers aware of the trade-offs
while designing networked shared-data systems.
It is very important to understand the CAP theorem as It makes the basics of
choosing any NoSQL database based on the requirements.
CAP theorem states that in networked shared-data systems or distributed
systems, we can only achieve at most two out of three guarantees for a
database: Consistency, Availability and Partition Tolerance.

Consistency
Consistency means that the nodes will have the same copies of a replicated data
item visible for various transactions. A guarantee that every node in a
distributed cluster returns the same, most recent, successful write.
Availability:
Availability means that each read or write request for a data item will either
be processed successfully or will receive a message that the operation cannot
be completed.
Partition tolerance
Partition tolerance means that the system can continue operating if the network
connecting the nodes has a fault that results in two or more partitions, where
the nodes in each partition can only communicate among each other.

The CAP theorem categorizes systems into three categories

CP (Consistent and Partition Tolerant) database:
A CP database delivers consistency and partition tolerance at the expense of
availability. When a partition occurs between any two nodes, the system has to
shut down the non-consistent node (i.e., make it unavailable) until the partition is
resolved.
AP (Available and Partition Tolerant) database
An AP database delivers availability and partition tolerance at the expense of
consistency. When a partition occurs, all nodes remain available but those at the
wrong end of a partition might return an older version of data than others. When
the partition is resolved, the AP databases typically resynchronous the nodes to
repair all inconsistencies in the system.
CA (Consistent and Available) database
A CA delivers consistency and availability in the absence of any network
partition. Often a single node’s DB servers are categorized as CA systems.
Single node DB servers do not need to deal with partition tolerance and are thus
considered CA systems.
In any networked shared-data systems or distributed systems partition tolerance
is a must. Network partitions and dropped messages are a fact of life and must
be handled appropriately.
There are the four main types of NoSQL databases
 Document databases
 Key-value stores
 Column-oriented databases
 Graph databases
Key-value stores
Data is stored in key/value pairs. It is designed in such a way to handle lots
of data and heavy load.
Key-value pair storage databases store data as a hash table where each key is
unique, and the value can be a JSON, BLOB(Binary Large Objects), string,
etc.
Redis, Dynamo, Riak are some NoSQL examples of key-value store
DataBases.
Document Databases
A document database stores data in JSON, BSON , or XML documents (not
Word documents or Google docs, of course). In a document database, documents
can be nested. Particular elements can be indexed for faster querying.

Amazon SimpleDB, CouchDB, MongoDB

Graph-Based
A graph type database stores entities as well the relations amongst those
entities. The entity is stored as a node with the relationship as edges. An edge
gives a relationship between nodes. Every node and edge has a unique
identifier.
A graph database is a database that is based on graph theory. It consists of a set
of objects, which can be a node or an edge.
 Nodes represent entities or instances such as people, businesses, accounts, or
any other item to be tracked.
 Edges, also termed graphs or relationships, are the lines that connect nodes
to other nodes; representing the relationship between them. Edges are the
key concept in graph databases.
 Properties are information associated to nodes.

Graph base database mostly used for social networks, logistics, spatial data.
Neo4J, Infinite Graph, OrientDB
Column-based
Column-oriented databases work on columns and are based on BigTable
paper by Google. Every column is treated separately. Values of single
column databases are stored contiguously.

HBase, Cassandra, HBase, Hypertable are NoSQL query examples

of column based database.