Network Layer & Internet

Protocols: IPv4 and IPv6.

Network Layer

• Function:
• Route packets end-to-end on a network, through
Application multiple hops
Presentation
• Key challenge:
Session • How to represent addresses
Transport • How to route packets
• Scalability
Network • Convergence
Data Link
Physical
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Layer-3 Functionalities
Devices which work on Network Layer mainly focus on routing. Routing may
include various tasks aimed to achieve a single goal. These can be:
 Addressing devices and networks.
 Populating routing tables or static routes.
 Queuing incoming and outgoing data and then forwarding them according to
quality of service constraints set for those packets.
 Internetworking between two different subnets.
 Delivering packets to destination with best efforts.
 Provides connection oriented and connection less mechanism.
Network Layer Features
With its standard functionalities, Layer 3 can provide various features as:
 Quality of service management
 Load balancing and link management
 Security
 Interrelation of different protocols and subnets with different schema.
 Different logical network design over the physical network design.
 L3 VPN and tunnels can be used to provide end to end dedicated connectivity.
Routers, Revisited
• How to connect multiple
LANs?
Routers
• LANs may be incompatible
• Ethernet, Wifi, etc…
• Connected networks form an
internetwork
• The Internet is the best known
example

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Routers take help of routing tables, which has the following information:
 Address of destination network
 Method to reach the network

Routers upon receiving a forwarding request, forwards packet to its next hop
(adjacent router) towards the destination.
The next router on the path follows the same thing and eventually the data
packet reaches its destination.
Network address can be of one of the following:
 Unicast (destined to one host)
 Multicast (destined to group)
 Broadcast (destined to all)
 Anycast (destined to nearest one)
Structure of the Internet
Network 3
Network 1

Network 4
Network 2

• Ad-hoc interconnection of networks

• No organized topology
• Vastly different technologies, link capacities
• Packets travel end-to-end by hopping through networks
• Routers “peer” (connect) different networks
• Different packets may take different routes

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Internetworking Issues

• Naming / Addressing
• How do you designate hosts?
• Routing Internet Service Model
• Best-effort
• Must be scalable (i.e. a switched Internet(i.e.
won’tthings
work) may break)
• Service Model • Store-and-forward datagram network
• What gets sent?
• How fast will it go?
• Lowest common denominator
What happens if there are failures?
• Must deal with heterogeneity
• Remember, every network is different

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Possible Addressing Schemes
• Flat
• e.g. each host is identified by a 48-bit MAC address
• Router needs an entry for every host in the world
• Too big
• Too hard to maintain (hosts come and go all the time)
• Too slow (more later)
• Hierarchy
• Addresses broken down into segments
• Each segment has a different level of specificity

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Example: Telephone Numbers

1-617-373-1234
3278

Very General

West Village
West Village GH
Room1234
Room 256

Updates are Local Very Specific 10

Binary Hierarchy Example

1** Datagram,
10* Destination = 101
100
101 11*
0**
110 00*
111 000
001 01*

010
011

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IP Addressing
• IPv4: 32-bit addresses
• Usually written in dotted notation, e.g. 192.168.21.76
• Each number is a byte
• Stored in Big Endian order

0 8 16 24 31
Decimal 192 168 21 76

Hex C0 A8 15 4C

Binary 11000000 10101000 00010101 01001100

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IP Addressing and Forwarding
• Routing Table Requirements
• For every possible IP, give the next hop
• But for 32-bit addresses, 232 possibilities!
• Too slow: 48GE ports and 4x10GE needs 176Gbps bandwidth
DRAM: ~1-6 Gbps; TCAM is fast, but 400x cost of DRAM
• Hierarchical address scheme
• Separate the address into a network and a host

0 31
Pfx Network Host

Known by all Known by edge

routers (LAN) routers 13
Classes of IP Addresses

0 1 8 16 24 31
Example: MIT
 Class A 0 Ntwk Host
18.*.*.*

1-126
0 2 8 16 24 31
Example: NEU
 Class B 10 Network Host
129.10.*.*
128-191
0 3 8 16 24 31
Example:
 Class C 110 Network Host
216.63.78.*

192-223 14
How Do You Get IPs?
• IP address ranges controlled by IANA

• Internet Assigned Number Authority

• Roots go back to 1972, ARPANET, UCLA
• Today, part of ICANN
• IANA grants IPs to regional authorities
• ARIN (American Registry of Internet Numbers) may grant you a range of IPs
• You may then advertise routes to your new IP range
• There are now secondary markets, auctions, …
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Two Level Hierarchy

Pfx Network Host

Subtree size
determined by …
network class
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Class Sizes

Way too big

Class Prefix Network Number of Classes Hosts per Class
Bits Bits
A 1 7 27 – 2 = 126 224 – 2 = 16,777,214
(0 and 127 are reserved) (All 0 and all 1 are reserved)
B 2 14 214 = 16,398 216 – 2 = 65,534
(All 0 and all 1 are reserved)
C 3 21 221 = 2,097,512 28 – 2 = 254
(All 0 and all 1 are reserved)
Total: 2,114,036

Too many Too small to

network IDs be useful
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Subnets
• Problem: need to break up large A and B
classes
• Solution: add another layer to the hierarchy
• From the outside, appears to be a single network
• Only 1 entry in routing tables
• Internally, manage multiple subnetworks
• Split the address range using a subnet mask

Pfx Ntwk Subnet Host

Subnet Mask: 11111111 11111111 11000000 00000000

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Subnet Example

• Extract network:
IP Address: 10110101 11011101 01010100 01110010
Subnet Mask: & 11111111 11111111 11000000 00000000
Result: 10110101 11011101 01000000 00000000

 Extract host:
IP Address: 10110101 11011101 01010100 01110010
Subnet Mask: & ~(11111111 11111111 11000000 00000000)
Result: 00000000 00000000 00010100 01110010

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N-Level Subnet Hierarchy

Pfx Network Subnet Host

…
• Tree does not have a fixed depth

…
• Increasingly specific subnet masks

Subtree size
determined by length of …
subnet mask 20
Example Routing Table
Address Pattern Subnet Mask Destination Router
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 Router 4
18.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 Router 2
128.42.0.0 255.255.0.0 Router 3
128.42.128.0 255.255.128.0 Router 5
128.42.222.0 2555.255.255.0 Router 1

 Question: 128.42.222.198 matches four rows

 Which router do we forward to?
 Longest prefix matching
 Use the row with the longest number of 1’s in the mask
 This is the most specific match
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Subnetting Revisited
• Question: does subnetting solve all the problems of class-based routing?

NO

• Classes are still too coarse

• Class A can be subnetted, but only 126 available
• Class C is too small
• Class B is nice, but there are only 16,398 available
• Routing tables are still too big
• 2.1 million entries per router

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Classless Inter Domain Routing
• CIDR, pronounced ‘cider’
• Key ideas:
• Get rid of IP classes
• Use bitmasks for all levels of routing
• Aggregation to minimize FIB (forwarding information
base)
• Arbitrary split between network and host
• Specified as a bitmask or prefix length
• Example: Northeastern
• 129.10.0.0 with netmask 255.255.0.0
• 129.10.0.0 / 16 23
Aggregation with CIDR
• Original use: aggregating class C ranges
• One organization given contiguous class C ranges
• Example: Microsoft, 207.46.192.* – 207.46.255.*
• Represents 26 = 64 class C ranges
• Specified as CIDR address 207.46.192.0/18

0 8 16 24 31
Decimal 207 46 192 0
Hex CF 2E C0 00
Binary 11001111 00101110 11xxxxxx xxxxxxxx

18 Bits Frozen By Netmask 14 Arbitrary Bits 24

Example CIDR Routing Table

Address Netmask Third Byte Byte Range

207.46.0.0 19 000xxxxx 0 – 31
207.46.32.0 19 001xxxxx 32 – 63
207.46.64.0 19 010xxxxx 64 – 95
207.46.128.0 18 10xxxxxx 128 – 191
207.46.192.0 18 11xxxxxx 192 – 255

Hole in the Routing Table: No coverage for 96 – 127

207.46.96.0/19 25
IP Datagrams
• IP Datagrams are like a letter
• Totally self-contained
• Include all necessary addressing information
• No advanced setup of connections or circuits

0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31
Version HLen DSCP/ECN Datagram Length
Identifier Flags Offset
TTL Protocol Checksum
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any, usually not)
Data 26
IP Header Fields: Word 1
• Version: 4 for IPv4
• Header Length: Number of 32-bit words (usually 5)
• Type of Service: Priority information (unused)
• Datagram Length: Length of header + data in bytes

0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31
Version HLen DSCP/ECN Datagram Length
Identifier Flags Offset
TTL Protocol Checksum
Limits packets
Source IP Address
to 65,535
Destination IP Address
bytes
Options (if any, usually not)
Data 27
IP Header Fields: Word 3
• Time to Live: decremented by each router
• Used to kill looping packets
• Protocol: ID of encapsulated protocol
• 6 = TCP, 17 = UDP
• Checksum
0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31
Version HLen DSCP/ECN Datagram Length
Identifier Flags Offset
TTL Protocol Checksum
Source IP Address
Used to Destination IP Address
implement Options (if any, usually not)
trace route Data 28
IP Header Fields: Word 4 and 5
• Source and destination address
• In theory, must be globally unique
• In practice, this is often violated

0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31
Version HLen DSCP/ECN Datagram Length
Identifier Flags Offset
TTL Protocol Checksum
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any, usually not)
Data 29
Problem: Fragmentation

MTU = 4000 MTU = 2000 MTU = 1500

Datagram Dgram1 Dgram2 1 2 3 4

• Problem: each network has its own MTU

• DARPA principles: networks allowed to be heterogeneous
• Minimum MTU may not be known for a given path
• IP Solution: fragmentation
• Split datagrams into pieces when MTU is reduced
• Reassemble original datagram at the receiver

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IP Header Fields: Word 2
• Identifier: a unique number for the original datagram
• Flags: M flag, i.e. this is the last fragment
• Offset: byte position of the first byte in the fragment
• Divided by 8

0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31
Version HLen TOS Datagram Length
Identifier Flags Offset
TTL Protocol Checksum
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any, usually not)
Data 31
Fragmentation Example

MTU = 4000 MTU = 2000 MTU = 1500

Length = 2000, M = 1
Offset = 0
IP Data
Length = 3820, M = 0
20 1980
IP Hdr Data
20 3800 1980
Length = 1840, M = 0 + 1820
Offset = 1980 = 3800
IP Data
20 1820
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Fragmentation Example

MTU = 2000 MTU = 1500

Length = 2000, M = 1 Length = 1500, M = 1

Offset = 0 Offset = 0
IP Data IP Data Length = 1500, M = 1
20 1980 20 1480 Offset = 1980
IP Data
20 1480
Length = 520, M = 1
1480
Length = 1840, M = 0 Offset = 1480 + 500
Offset = 1980 IP Data Length
= =1980
360, M = 0
Offset = 3460
IP Data 20 500
20 1820
IP Data
20 340 33
IP Fragment Reassembly
• Performed at destination
Length = 1500, M = 1, Offset = 0
IP Data
• M = 0 fragment gives us
20 1480 total data size
Length = 520, M = 1, Offset = 1480
• 360 – 20 + 3460 = 3800
IP Data • Challenges:
20 500 • Out-of-order fragments
Length = 1500, M = 1, Offset = 1980 • Duplicate fragments
IP Data • Missing fragments
20 1480
• Basically, memory
Length = 360, M = 0, Offset = 3460
management nightmare
IP Data
20 340 34
Fragmentation Concepts
• Highlights many key Internet characteristics
• Decentralized and heterogeneous
• Each network may choose its own MTU
• Connectionless datagram protocol
• Each fragment contains full routing information
• Fragments can travel independently, on different paths
• Best effort network
• Routers/receiver may silently drop fragments
• No requirement to alert the sender
• Most work is done at the endpoints
• i.e. reassembly
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Fragmentation in Reality
• Fragmentation is expensive
• Memory and CPU overhead for datagram reconstruction
• Want to avoid fragmentation if possible
• MTU discovery protocol
• Send a packet with “don’t fragment” bit set
• Keep decreasing message length until one arrives
• May get “can’t fragment” error from a router, which will explicitly state the
supported MTU
• Router handling of fragments
• Fast, specialized hardware handles the common case
• Dedicated, general purpose CPU just for handling fragments

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The IPv4 Address Space Crisis
• Problem: the IPv4 address space is too small
• 232 = 4,294,967,296 possible addresses
• Less than one IP per person
• Parts of the world have already run out of addresses
• IANA assigned the last /8 block of addresses in 2011
Regional Internet Registry
Region (RIR) Exhaustion Date
Asia/Pacific APNIC April 19, 2011
Europe/Middle East RIPE September 14, 2012
North America ARIN 13 Jan 2015 (Projected)
South America LACNIC 13 Jan 2015 (Projected)
Africa AFRINIC 17 Jan 2022(Projected)

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IPv6
• IPv6, first introduced in 1998(!)
• 128-bit addresses
• 4.8 * 1028 addresses per person
• Address format
• 8 groups of 16-bit values, separated by ‘:’
• Leading zeroes in each group may be omitted
• Groups of zeroes can be omitted using ‘::’

2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:ff00:0042:8329
2001:0db8:0:0:0:ff00:42:8329
2001:0db8::ff00:42:8329

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IPv6 Trivia

• Who knows the IP for localhost?

• 127.0.0.1

• What is localhost in IPv6?

• ::1

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IPv6 Header
• Double the size of IPv4 (320 bits vs. 160 bits)

0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31
Version DSCP/ECN Flow Label
Datagram Length Next Header Hop Limit
Version Same
= 6 as IPv4 Groups
Same as IPv4 Same as into Same as TTL in
packets
Source IP Address
Protocol in for
flows, used IPv4
IPv4QoS

Destination IP Address

40
Differences from IPv4 Header
• Several header fields are missing in IPv6
• Header length – rolled into Next Header field
• Checksum – was useless, so why keep it
• Identifier, Flags, Offset
• IPv6 routers do not support fragmentation
• Hosts are expected to use path MTU discovery
• Reflects changing Internet priorities
• Today’s networks are more homogeneous
• Instead, routing cost and complexity dominate

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Performance Improvements
• No checksums to verify
• No need for routers to handle fragmentation
• Simplified routing table design
• Address space is huge
• No need for CIDR (but need for aggregation)
• Standard subnet size is 264 addresses
• Simplified auto-configuration
• Neighbor Discovery Protocol
• Used by hosts to determine network ID
• Host ID can be random!

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Additional IPv6 Features
 Source Routing
• Host specifies the route to wants packet to take
 Mobile IP
• Hosts can take their IP with them to other networks
• Use source routing to direct packets
 Privacy Extensions
• Randomly generate host identifiers
• Make it difficult to associate one IP to a host
 Jumbograms
• Support for 4Gb datagrams
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Deployment Challenges

HTTP, FTP, SMTP, RTP, IMAP, …

TCP, UDP, ICMP
IPv4
Ethernet, 802.11x, DOCSIS, …
Fiber, Coax, Twisted Pair, Radio, …

 Switching to IPv6 is a whole-Internet upgrade

• All routers, all hosts
• ICMPv6, DHCPv6, DNSv6
 2013: 0.94% of Google traffic was IPv6, 2.5% today 44
Transitioning to IPv6
• How do we ease the transition from IPv4 to IPv6?
oToday, most network edges are IPv6 ready
⁎ Windows/OSX/iOS/Android all support IPv6
⁎ Your wireless access point probably supports IPv6
oThe Internet core is hard to upgrade
o… but a IPv4 core cannot route IPv6 traffic

IPv6 IPv4 IPv6

Ready Only :( Ready
IPv6 Packets
Home Core Business
Network Internet Network
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Transition Technologies

□How do you route IPv6 packets over an IPv4 Internet?

□Transition Technologies
 Use tunnels to encapsulate and route IPv6 packets over the IPv4
Internet
 Several different implementations
⁎ 6to4
⁎ IPv6 Rapid Deployment (6rd)
⁎ Teredo
⁎ … etc.

46
6to4 Basics
• Problem: you’ve been assigned an IPv4 address, but you want an IPv6
address
• Your ISP can’t or won’t give you an IPv6 address
• You can’t just arbitrarily choose an IPv6 address
• Solution: construct a 6to4 address
• 6to4 addresses always start with 2002::
• Embed the 32-bit IPv4 inside the 128-bit IPv6 address

IPv4: 207. 46. 192. 0

IPv6: 20 02: CF 2E: C0 00: 0000 47

Routing from 6to4 to 6to4
• How does a host using 6to4 send a packet to another host using 6to4?

Dest: 2002:104F:0800::

Dest: 16.79.8.0

IPv4
Internet

IPv4 – 207.46.192.0 IPv4 – 16.79.8.0

IPv6 – 2002:CF2E:C000:: IPv6 – 2002:104F:0800::48
Routing from 6to4 to Native IPv6

Special, any casted

IPv4 address for
Dest: 1893:92:13:99:: 6to4 Relay Routers

Dest: 192. 88.99.1

IPv4
Internet IPv4 – 192.88.99.1
IPv6 – 2002:: /16
IPv4 – 207.46.192.0
IPv6 – 2002:CF2E:C000::
IPv6
Many ISPs Internet
provide 6to4
relay routers

IPv6 – 1893:92:13:99:: 49
Routing from Native IPv6 to 6to4

IPv4
Internet
IPv4 – 192.88.99.1
IPv6 – 2002:: /16
IPv4 – 207.46.192.0
IPv6 – 2002:CF2E:C000:: Dest: 207.46.192.0
IPv6
Use normal IPv6 Dest: 2002:CF2E:C000::
Internet
routing to reach a
6to4 relay router
50
IPv6 – 1893:92:13:99::
Problems with 6to4
 Uniformity
o Not all ISPs have deployed 6to4 relays
 Quality of service
o Third-party 6to4 relays are available
o …but, they may be overloaded or unreliable
 Reachability
o 6to4 doesn’t work if you are behind a NAT
 Possible solutions
o IPv6 Rapid Deployment (6rd)
⁕ Each ISP sets up relays for its customers
⁕ Does not leverage the 2002:: address space
o Teredo
⁕ Tunnels IPv6 packets through UDP/IPv4 tunnels
⁕ Can tunnel through NATs, but requires special relays
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Consequences of IPv6
Beware unintended consequences of IPv6
Example: IP blacklists
 Currently, blacklists track IPs of spammers/bots
 Few IPv4 addresses mean list sizes are reasonable
 Hard for spammers/bots to acquire new IPs
Blacklists will not work with IPv6
 Address space is enormous
 Acquiring new IP addresses is trivial

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