CSE3001 - Artificial Intelligence

and Machine Learning

SCHOOL OF CSE & IS,

PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY,
BANGALORE

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 MODULE 1

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence and

Knowledge based systems

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CONTENTS
 Artificial Intelligence
 Introduction
 Definitions
 Foundation
 History
 Applications
 Agents
 Types of Agents, Structure and functions
 Agents and Environment
 Knowledge Representation
 Introduction, Approaches and Issues
 Searching Algorithm in AI
 Conceptual graphs:
 Methods of Logic representation(POL, FOL)

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE - INTRODUCTION

• Homo Sapiens : The name is Latin for "wise man“

• Philosophy of AI - “Can a machine think and behave like humans do?”

• In Simple Words - Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a

computer, a computer-controlled robot, or a software think
intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent humans think.

• Artificial intelligence (AI) is an area of computer science that

emphasizes the creation of intelligent machines that work and
react like humans.
• AI is accomplished by studying how human brain thinks, and how
humans learn, decide, and work while trying to solve a problem,
and then using the outcomes of this study as a basis of developing
intelligent software and systems.

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What is AI?

Views of AI fall into four categories:

1. Thinking humanly
2. Thinking rationally
3. Acting humanly
4. Acting rationally

The textbook advocates "acting rationally"

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What is AI?
Thinking Humanly Thinking Rationally

“The exciting new effort to make computers “The study of mental faculties through the
think … machines with minds, in the full and use of computational models.”
literal sense.”
“The study of the computations that make it
“Activities that we associate with human possible to perceive, reason and act.”
thinking, activities such as decision-
making, problem solving, learning…”

Acting Humanly Acting Rationally

“The art of creating machines that perform “Computational Intelligence is the study of
functions that require intelligence when the design of intelligent agents.”
performed by
people.” “AI … is concerned with intelligent
behavior in artifacts.”
“The study of how to make computers do
things at which, at the moment, people
are better.”

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Thinking humanly: Cognitive Modeling

• If we are going to say that given program thinks like a human, we

must have some way of determining how humans think.

• We need to get inside the actual working of human minds.

• There are 3 ways to do it:

1. Through introspection
Trying to catch our own thoughts as they go
2. Through psychological experiments
Observing a person in action
3. Through brain imaging
Observing the brain in action

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Thinking humanly: Cognitive Modeling

• Once we have a sufficiently precise theory of the mind, it becomes

possible to express the theory as a computer program.

• If the program’s input-output behavior matches corresponding human

behavior, that is evidence that the program’s mechanisms could also
be working in humans.

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Thinking Rationally: “Laws of Thought"

• Aristotle: one of the first to attempt to codify “right thinking”.

Mathematical representation.

• His syllogisms provided patterns for argument structures that

always yielded correct conclusions when given premises are correct.

• Example – Socrates is a man

All men are mortal
Therefore
Socrates is mortal

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Acting humanly: Turing Test

• Turing (1950) developed "Computing machinery and intelligence":

• "Can machines think?"  "Can machines behave intelligently?"
• Operational test for intelligent behavior: the Imitation Game

• A computer passes the test if a human interrogator, after posing

some written questions, cannot tell whether the written responses
come from a person or from a machine.

• Suggested major components of AI: knowledge, reasoning,

language understanding, learning

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Acting humanly: Turing Test

The computer would need to posses the following capabilities:

• Natural Language Processing:

To enable it to communicate successfully in English.
• Knowledge representation:
To store what it knows or hear.
• Automated reasoning:
To use the stored information to answer questions and to draw new
conclusions.
• Computer vision: To perceive objects.
• Robotics: To manipulate objects and move about.

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Acting Rationally: Rational Agent

• An agent is an entity that perceives and acts

• A system is rational if it does the “right thing,” given what it knows.
• This course is about designing rational agents
• Rational agent is one that acts so as to achieve the best outcome or, when
there is uncertainty, the best expected outcome.

• Abstractly, an agent is a function from percept histories to actions:

[f: P*  A]

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 Definition of AI

• Existing definitions advocate everything from replicating human

intelligence to simply solving knowledge-intensive tasks.

Examples:

“Artificial Intelligence is the design, study and construction of

computer programs that behave intelligently.” -- Tom Dean.

“Artificial Intelligence is the enterprise of constructing a physical

symbol system that can reliably pass the Turing test.” -- Matt
Ginsberg.

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 History of AI

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Ref : https://www.javatpoint.com/history-of-artificial-intelligence
Applications of AI

• Deep Blue(chess-playing computer) defeated the world chess

champion Garry Kasparov in 1997
• During the 1991 Gulf War, US forces deployed an AI logistics
planning and scheduling program that involved up to 50,000
vehicles, cargo, and people
• Planning – How to use resources?
• Scheduling – When to use the resources?
• NASA's on-board autonomous planning program controlled
the scheduling of operations for a spacecraft
• Google duplex
• The GPS developed in 1957 by Alan Newell and Hervert Simon,
embodied a grandiose vision

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Future Perspective
(1) Reducing the time and cost of development is a big plan for AI.
(2) To develop applications towards strong AI.
(3) Allowing students to work collaboratively is another plan from
Researchers.
• Perfect rationality: the classical notion of rationality in decision
theory.
• Bounded optimality: A bounded optimal agent behaves as well as
possible given its computational resources.
• Game theory studies decision problems in which the utility of a given
action depends not only on changing events in the environment but
also on the actions of other agents.
Major Concerns

TA
Y

COMPAS - Correctional Offender Management

Profiling for Alternative Sanctions

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Singularity

Singularity is a hypothetical future point

in time at which technological growth
becomes uncontrollable and irreversible,
resulting in unfathomable changes to
human civilization.

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 AGENTS

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Agents in Artificial Intelligence

• Artificial intelligence is defined as a study of rational agents. A

rational agent could be anything which makes decisions, as a
person, firm, machine, or software. It carries out an action with the
best outcome after considering past and current percepts(agent’s
perceptual inputs at a given instance).
An AI system is composed of an agent and its environment. The
agents act in their environment.
• The environment may contain other agents. An agent is anything
that can be viewed as :
• perceiving its environment through sensors and
• acting upon that environment through actuators

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The Structure of Intelligent Agents

• Agent’s structure can be viewed as −

• Agent = Architecture + Agent Program
• Architecture = the machinery that an agent executes on.
• Agent Program = an implementation of an agent function.
• To understand the structure of Intelligent Agents, we should be
familiar with Architecture and Agent Program. Architecture is the
machinery that the agent executes on. It is a device with sensors
and actuators, for example : a robotic car, a camera, a PC. Agent
program is an implementation of an agent function. An agent
function is a map from the percept sequence(history of all that an
agent has perceived till date) to an action.

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Agent Terminology

• Performance Measure of Agent − It is the criteria, which

determines how successful an agent is.
• Behavior of Agent − It is the action that agent performs after any
given sequence of percepts.
• Percept − It is agent’s perceptual inputs at a given instance.
• Percept Sequence − It is the history of all that an agent has
perceived till date.
• Agent Function − It is a map from the precept sequence to an
action.

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Rationality
• Rationality is nothing but status of being reasonable, sensible, and
having good sense of judgment.
• Rationality is concerned with expected actions and results depending
upon what the agent has perceived. Performing actions with the aim
of obtaining useful information is an important part of rationality.
What is Ideal Rational Agent?
• An ideal rational agent is the one, which is capable of doing expected
actions to maximize its performance measure, on the basis of −
• Its percept sequence, built-in knowledge base
• Rationality of an agent depends on the following −
• The performance measures, which determine the degree of success.
• Agent’s Percept Sequence till now. The agent’s prior knowledge
about the environment.

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Rationality

• The actions that the agent can carry out.

• A rational agent always performs right action, where the right action
means the action that causes the agent to be most successful in the
given percept sequence. The problem the agent solves is
characterized by Performance Measure, Environment, Actuators, and
Sensors (PEAS).

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Examples of Agent Environment:-
• An agent is anything that can perceive its environment
through sensors and acts upon that environment
through effectors.
• A human agent has sensory organs such as eyes, ears, nose,
tongue and skin parallel to the sensors, and other organs such as
hands, legs, mouth, for effectors.
• A robotic agent replaces cameras and infrared range finders for
the sensors, and various motors and actuators for effectors.
• A software agent has encoded bit strings as its programs and
actions.

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Types of Agents

• Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of

perceived intelligence and capability. All these agents can improve
their performance and generate better action over the time. These
are given below:
• Simple Reflex Agent
• Model-based reflex agent
• Goal-based agents
• Utility-based agent
• Learning agent

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Simple Reflex Agent
• The Simple reflex agents are the simplest agents. These agents take
decisions on the basis of the current percepts and ignore the rest of
the percept history.
• These agents only succeed in the fully observable environment.
• The Simple reflex agent does not consider any part of percepts
history during their decision and action process.
• The Simple reflex agent works on Condition-action rule, which
means it maps the current state to action. Such as a Room Cleaner
agent, it works only if there is dirt in the room.
• Problems for the simple reflex agent design approach:
• They have very limited intelligence
• They do not have knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the
current state
• Mostly too big to generate and to store also not adaptive to
changes in the environment.

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Simple Reflex Agent

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Model-based reflex agent

• The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable

environment, and track the situation.
• A model-based agent has two important factors:
• Model: It is knowledge about "how things happen in the
world," so it is called a Model-based agent.
• Internal State: It is a representation of the current state
based on percept history.
• These agents have the model, "which is knowledge of the world"
and based on the model they perform actions.
• Updating the agent state requires information about:
• How the world evolves
• How the agent's action affects the world.

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Model-based reflex agent

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Goal-based agents

• The knowledge of the current state environment is not always

sufficient to decide for an agent to what to do.
• The agent needs to know its goal which describes desirable
situations.
• Goal-based agents expand the capabilities of the model-based agent
by having the "goal" information.
• They choose an action, so that they can achieve the goal.
• These agents may have to consider a long sequence of possible
actions before deciding whether the goal is achieved or not. Such
considerations of different scenario are called searching and
planning, which makes an agent proactive.

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Goal-based agents

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Utility-based agents
• These agents are similar to the goal-based agent but provide an
extra component of utility measurement which makes them
different by providing a measure of success at a given state.
• Utility-based agent act based not only goals but also the best way
to achieve the goal.
• The Utility-based agent is useful when there are multiple possible
alternatives, and an agent has to choose in order to perform the
best action.
• The utility function maps each state to a real number to check how
efficiently each action achieves the goals.

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Utility-based agents

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Learning Agents
• A learning agent in AI is the type of agent that can learn from its past
experiences, or it has learning capabilities.
• It starts to act with basic knowledge and then is able to act and adapt
automatically through learning.
• A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components, which are:
• Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements by
learning from the environment
• Critic: The learning element takes feedback from the critic which
describes that how well the agent is doing with respect to a fixed
performance standard.
• Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external action
• Problem generator: This component is responsible for suggesting
actions that will lead to new and informative experiences.
• Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze performance, and look for
new ways to improve performance.

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Learning Agents

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AGENTS AND ENVIRONMENT
• Some programs operate in the entirely artificial
environment confined to keyboard input, database, computer file
systems and character output on a screen.
• In contrast, some software agents (software robots or soft bots) exist
in rich, unlimited soft bots domains. The simulator has a very
detailed, complex environment.
• The most famous artificial environment is the Turing Test
environment, in which one real and other artificial agents are tested
on equal ground.
• The success of an intelligent behavior of a system can be measured
with Turing Test.
• Two persons and a machine to be evaluated participate in the test.
Out of the two persons, one plays the role of the tester. Each of them
sits in different rooms. The tester is unaware of who is machine and
who is a human.

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Properties/Features of Environment

• Discrete / Continuous
• Observable / Partially Observable
• Static / Dynamic
• Single agent / Multiple agents
• Accessible / Inaccessible
• Deterministic / Non-deterministic
• Episodic / Non-episodic

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 KNOWLEDGE
REPRESENTATION

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 Introduction to knowledge
• Knowledge is the sort of information that people use to solve
problems.
• Knowledge is having familiarity with the language, concepts,
procedures, rules, ideas, places, customs, facts, and associations.

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Ref : https://nptel.ac.in/courses/126104006/LectureNotes/Week-3_Knowledge%20Representation.pdf https://
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www.javatpoint.com/knowledge-representation-in-ai
Knowledge
• Definition and Importance of Knowledge
• Knowledge-Based Systems
• Knowledge Organization
• Representation of Knowledge
– Logic
– Associative Networks
– Frame Structures
– Conceptual graphs

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Ref : https://nptel.ac.in/courses/126104006/LectureNotes/Week-3_Knowledge%20Representation.pdf
Introduction to Knowledge Representation (KR)
• The method used to encode knowledge in an KBS’s Knowledge base
• The field of AI dedicated to representing information about the world in a
form that a computer system can utilize to solve complex tasks

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https://www.javatpoint.com/ai-techniques-of-knowledge-representation 43
Why do we need Knowledge Representation?

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Ref : https://nptel.ac.in/courses/126104006/LectureNotes/Week-3_Knowledge%20Representation.pdf
Knowledge Representation Schemas

• Logical schemas • Network schemas

- First-order logic - Semantic networks
- Higher-order logic - Conceptual graphs

• Procedural schemas • Structural schemas

- Frames
- Rule-based systems - Scripts

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Common Techniques/Issues of KR

• Object – Attribute – Value Triplets (O-A-V)

• Rules
• Semantic Networks
• Frames
• Logic

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Object – Attribute – Value Triplets (O-A-V)

• The Ball is round in shape

– Object: Ball
– Attribute: Shape
– Value: Red

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 Rules

• Rule: A knowledge structure that relates some known information to

other information that can be concluded or inferred

• A rule describes how to solve a problem

• Expert systems employing rules are called rule-based expert systems

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Structure of Rule

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Working Memory

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Inference Engine

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Semantic Networks

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Draw a Semantic Network

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https://www.slideserve.com/kacy/knowledge-representation-techniques
Semantic Networks

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Associative Networks

• Semantic networks consist of nodes, links (edges) and link

labels.
• nodes appear as circles or ellipses or rectangles to represent
objects such as physical objects, concepts or situations.
• Links appear as arrows to express the relationships between
objects .
• link labels specify particular relations .
• As nodes are associated with other nodes semantic nets are also
referred to as Associative Networks.
• Semantic Networks, Frames and Scripts are sometimes called as
Associative Networks.

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Associative Networks

Example :
mother(john, sue)
age(john,5)
wife(sue,max)
age(max,34)

mother age
Sue John 5

34 Max
age

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Associative Networks

• It's defined as various kinds of links between the concepts.

• “has-part” or aggregation.
• “is-a” or specialization.
More specialized depending on domain.
• It typically also includes Inheritance and some kind of
procedural attachment.
Example :
- Tom is a Bird.
- Bird is a Animal.
- Bird has part Wings.

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Associative Networks

• The ISA (is-a) or AKO (a-kind-

Example; Tom is a
Bird. Bird is a Animal. of) relation is often used to link
Bird has part Wings.
instances to classes, classes to
super classes
• Some links (e.g. has Part) are
Is-a
Animal
Bird
inherited along ISA paths.
has-part

• The semantics of a semantic

Tom net can be relatively informal

wings
or very formal – often defined
at the implementation level

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Knowledge-based agent and its Structure
• Knowledge-based agents are those agents who have the capability
of maintaining an internal state of knowledge, reason over that
knowledge, update their knowledge after observations and take
actions. These agents can represent the world with some formal
representation and act intelligently.
• Knowledge-based agents are composed of two main parts:
• Knowledge-base and
• Inference system.
• A knowledge-based agent must able to do the following:
• An agent should be able to represent states, actions, etc.
• An agent Should be able to incorporate new percepts
• An agent can update and deduce the internal representation of the
world. An agent can deduce appropriate actions.

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The Structure of knowledge-based agent:

• The knowledge-based agent (KBA) take input from the environment

by perceiving the environment.
• The input is taken by the inference engine of the agent and which
also communicate with KB to decide as per the knowledge store in
KB.
• The learning element of KBA regularly updates the KB by learning
new knowledge.

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• Knowledge base: Knowledge-base is a central component of a
knowledge-based agent, it is also known as KB. It is a collection of
sentences (here 'sentence' is a technical term and it is not identical
to sentence in English). These sentences are expressed in a language
which is called a knowledge representation language. The
Knowledge-base of KBA stores fact about the world.
• Inference system:
• Inference means deriving new sentences from old. Inference system
allows us to add a new sentence to the knowledge base. A sentence is
a proposition about the world. Inference system applies logical rules
to the KB to deduce new information.
• Inference system generates new facts so that an agent can update
the KB. An inference system works mainly in two rules which are
given as:
• Forward chaining
• Backward chaining

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• Operations Performed by KBA
• Following are three operations which are performed by KBA in
order to show the intelligent behavior:
• TELL: This operation tells the knowledge base what it perceives
from the environment.
• ASK: This operation asks the knowledge base what action it
should perform.
• Perform: It performs the selected action.

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Knowledge Based Systems (KBS)
• A Knowledge-based system(KBS) is a computer program that
reasons and uses a knowledge base to solve complex problems.
• A system which is built around a knowledge base. i.e. a collection of
knowledge, taken from a human, and stored in such a way that the
system can reason with it.
• Uses AI to solve problems within a specialized domain that
ordinarily requires human expertise.
• Uses Heuristic (cause and effect) rather than algorithms.
• E.g.
– Expert Systems
– Clinical decision-support systems
• MYCIN, for example, was an early knowledge-based system
created to help doctors diagnose diseases

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KBS Examples

• Expert Systems
– One in which the knowledge, stored in the knowledge base, has
been taken from an expert in some particular field.
– Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by
reasoning through bodies of knowledge, represented mainly as if–
then rules rather than through conventional procedural code.
– Therefore, an expert system can, to a certain extent, act as a
substitute for the expert from whom the knowledge was taken.
• Clinical decision-support systems
• MYCIN, for example, was an early knowledge-based system
created to help doctors diagnose diseases.

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 KBS Architecture

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https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Expert-System-Architecture-23-Knowledge-Base_fig1_319208444 66
 KBS Architecture

• User Interface
– Enables the user to
communicate with KBS

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KBS Architecture
KBS = Knowledge-Base + Inference Engine

• Knowledge Base

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Knowledge base System
Storing knowledge inside the program
#include<stdio.h> int
main()
{

char dob=“20/08/1992”; #Knowledge

………….
………….

}
Instead write the dob in text file and access the date of birth from
the text file Text file: dob.txt

20/08/1992

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KBS Architecture continued
• Inference Engine :
– Tries to derive answers from
knowledge base.
– Brain of KBS that provides a
methodology for reasoning about
the information in the knowledge
base and for formulating
conclusions.

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Example 1 for AI system:
Gender Identification Problem
• Male and female names have some distinctive
characteristics.
• Names ending in a, e and i are likely to be female.
• Names ending in k, n, r, s and t are likely to be male.

Input File: male.txt Input File: female.txt Output: Predict

Amit Reshma the Gender for
Prasan Akshata the following
Ashok Vani names:
Ankit Sita
Amar Bhavani • Karan
Chetan Lalita • Sameera
Shashank Ankita
Sumant Harika

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 Architecture of AI
Components of Knowledge base System

Input – Output Inference- Knowledge

Unit control Unit base

Input-output: male.txt and female.txt

Knowledge base:
From the last character in the name identification of gender is
possible.
Inference-control Unit: AI Algorithm Implementation – Programs
Example: Naïve Bayes Algorithm, Decision Tree Algorithm

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List of Common Algorithms:

• Naive Bayes
• Decision Trees
• Linear Regression
• Support Vector Machines (SVM)
• Neural Networks

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 Example 2 for AI system: Movie Rating

Airlift Movie rating – Reviews

(Movie site, Facebook, Blog)
Post - How is Airlift Movie?
Comments from the people who watched movie -
- Airlift Movie is nice.
- It’s boring.
- Yesterday I went to the movie. I enjoyed it.
- Superb.

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 Architecture of AI
Components of Knowledge base System

Input – Output Inference- Knowledge

Unit control Unit base

Input-output: Facebook, twitter and movie site comments about the movie.

Knowledge base: Contains the positive, negative and neutral keywords

(Dictionary).

Inference-control Unit: AI Algorithm Implementation – Programs

Example: NLP Algorithms, Naïve Bayes Algorithm, Support Vector Machines

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 Architecture of AI
Components of Knowledge base System

Input – Output Inference- Knowledge

Unit control Unit base

• Knowledge-based systems – get the power from expert knowledge that

has been coded into facts, heuristics, and procedures.
• The knowledge is stored in knowledge base separate from the
control and inference components.
• This makes possible to add new knowledge or refine existing knowledge
without recompiling the control and inference programs.

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SEARCH ALGORITHM IN AI

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SEARCH ALGORITHM TERMINOLOGIES

• Search: Searching is a step by step procedure to solve a search-problem in a

given search space. A search problem can have three main factors:
Search Space: Search space represents a set of possible solutions,
which a system may have.
Start State: It is a state from where agent begins the search.
Goal test: It is a function which observe the current state and returns
whether the goal state is achieved or not.
Search tree: A tree representation of search problem is called Search tree. The
root of the search tree is the root node which is corresponding to the initial
state.
Actions: It gives the description of all the available actions to the agent.
Transition model: A description of what each action do, can be represented as
a transition model.
Path Cost: It is a function which assigns a numeric cost to each path.
Solution: It is an action sequence which leads from the start node to the goal
node.
Optimal Solution: If a solution has the lowest cost among all solutions.

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PROPERTIES OF SEARCH ALGORITHM

• Completeness: A search algorithm is said to be complete if it

guarantees to return a solution if at least any solution exists for any
random input.
• Optimality: If a solution found for an algorithm is guaranteed to be
the best solution (lowest path cost) among all other solutions, then
such a solution for is said to be an optimal solution.
• Time Complexity: Time complexity is a measure of time for an
algorithm to complete its task.
• Space Complexity: It is the maximum storage space required at any
point during the search, as the complexity of the problem.

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A* SEARCH

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=tvAh0JZF2YE

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FRAME STRUCTURES
• Semantic networks morphed into Frame representation
Languages in the ‘70s and ‘80s.
• A frame is a lot like the notion of an

object in OOP, but has more meta-data.

• Represents related knowledge about a subject
• A frame has a set of slots.

• A slot represents a relation to another frame (or value). A slot has

one or more facets.
• A facet represents some aspect of the relation. Facet : A slot in
a frame holds more than a value

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Frame

• A data structure for

representing stereotypical
knowledge of some concept

• A frame is a collection of
attributes and associated
values that describe some
entity in the world.

• Frames are general record like

structures which consist of a
collection of slots and slot
values.

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FRAME STRUCTURES

Example :
• (Jones)
• (Profession (Value
Lecturer))
• (Age (Value 25 ))
• (City (Value
Yelahanka))
• (State (Value
Karnataka))

* Note : value is a
Keyword.

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Conceptual Graphs

• Conceptual graph
– A finite, connected, bipartite graph.
– No arc labels, instead the conceptual relation nodes represent relations between concepts
– Concepts are represented as boxes and conceptual relations as ellipses
– Nodes
• Concept Nodes – box nodes
– Concrete concepts:
» These concepts are characterized by our ability to form
an image of them in our minds.
» cat, telephone, classroom
» Concrete concepts include generic concepts such as cat
or book along with concepts of
specific cats and books

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 Abstract objects:
• » Abstract Concepts that do not
correspond to images in our minds
• » love, beauty, loyalty
• Conceptual Relation Nodes – ellipse nodes
• – Relations involving one or more concepts
• – Some special relation nodes, namely,
agent, recipient, object, experiencer, are used to
link a subject and the verb
• – Arity – number of box nodes linked to

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Conceptual Graphs

• Example :

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Conceptual Graphs

• Example:
Conceptual graph indicating that the dog named Emma is
brown.

Conceptual graph indicating that a particular (but unnamed) dog is brown.

Conceptual graph indicating that a dog named Emma is brown.

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 Example: Her name was McGill and she called herself
Lil, but everyone knew her as Nancy

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Conceptual Graphs

• Example:

Each graph represents a single proposition.

• Advantage:
– Single relationship between multiple concepts is easily
representable.

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 Example: Mary gave John the book

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Example: John is going to Boston by bus
• Each of the four concepts has a type
label, which represents the type of
entity the concept refers to: Person,
Go, Boston, or Bus.
• Two of the concepts have names,
which identify the referent: John
or Boston.
• Each of the three conceptual relations
has a type label that represents the
type of relation: agent (Agnt),
destination (Dest), or instrument
(Inst).
• The CG as a whole indicates that the
person John is the agent of some
instance of going, the city Boston is
the destination, and a bus is the
instrument.

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Example: John agent eat object soup instrument hand part

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Logic

• A logic is a formal language, with precisely defined syntax and

semantics, which supports sound inference.

• Different logics exist, which allow you to represent different kinds of

things, and which allow more or less efficient inference.

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THANK YOU

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