UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, KOTA

Presentation on
DATA COMMUNICATIONS LINKS AND PROTOCOL
Submitted to
Dr. Girish Paramar
Associate Professor
Electronics Department
Project Co-ordinator
DATA COMMUNICATIONS LINKS AND PROTOCOL

• ISO Reference Model

• Transmission Media
• Network Topologies
• Internet Working
• Data Transmission
• Bus Access Methods
• Error Handling Field Buses
• MAP and TOP Protocols
• Features and Capabilities of Various Field Buses
• Comparison of MODBUS,PROFIBUS and FIPBUS
• HART Protocol
• IEEE Project 1002 on LAN Implementation.
 The OSI-ISO
Open Systems Interconnection
International Standards of Organization
REFERENCE MODEL
 THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL
• The model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984. It is now considered the primary Architectural
model for inter-computer communications.

• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is a descriptive

network scheme. It ensures greater compatibility and interoperability
between various types of network technologies.

• The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from
application programs (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium
(such as wire) to another application program located on another network.

• The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between
computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable
problems .
1. Physical layer

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
 Physical layer
The physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface
between the devices and the transmission medium. It also
defines the type of transmission medium .

• Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium

• Representation of bits
• Data rate
• Synchronization of bits
• Line configuration
• Physical topology
• Transmission mode
2. Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames

from one hop (node) to the next.
 Data link layer

The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw

transmission facility, to a reliable link. It makes the physical
layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).

• Framing.
• Physical addressing.
• Flow control.
• Error control.
• Access control.
3. Network layer

The Network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual

packets from the source host to the destination host.
 Network layer
The Network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination
delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks (links).
Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the
packet between two systems on the same network the
network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of
origin to its final destination.

Main Topics:
• Logical addressing
• Routing
4. Transport layer

The Transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a

message from one process to another.
 Transport Layer

The Transport layer is responsible for process-to

process delivery of the entire message. A process is
an application program running on a host.

• Service-point addressing.
• Segmentation and reassembly.
• Connection control.
• Flow control.
• Error control.
5. Session Layer

The session layer is responsible for dialog control and

synchronization.
 Session Layer

The session layer is the network dialog controller. It

establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction
among communicating systems.

• Dialog control The session layer allows two systems to enter

into a dialog. It allows the communication between two
processes to take place in either half duplex or full-duplex
mode.

• Synchronization The session layer allows a process to add

checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a stream of data.
6. Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.
 Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and

semantics of the information exchanged between two
systems.

• Translation
• Encryption
• Compression
7. Application Layer

The application layer is responsible for providing services

to the user.
 Application Layer
The application layer enables the user, whether human or
software, to access the network. It provides user interfaces
and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file
access and transfer, shared database management, and other
types of distributed information services.

• Network virtual terminal

• File transfer, access, and management
• Mail services
• Directory services
 Examples
Layer Example
7.) Application HTTP, FTP, SMTP
6.) Presentation ASCII, JPEG, PGP
5.) Session BOOTP, NetBIOS, DHCP, DNS
4.) Transport TCP, UDP, SPX
3.) Network IP, IPX, ICMP
2.) Data Link Ethernet, Token Ring, Frame Relay
1.) Physical Bits, Interfaces, Hubs
Summary of Layers
 SUMMARY
• There was no standard for networks in the early days and as a result it was difficult for
networks to communicate with each other.

• The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) recognized this and researched
various network schemes, and in 1984 introduced the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model.

• The OSI reference model has standards which ensure vendors greater compatibility and
interoperability between various types of network technologies.

• Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification and
communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware on other computers.

• Layers 1-4 are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network
and Layers 5-7 are concerned with services to the applications.
Transmission Media
A Transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything
that can carry information from a source to a destination.
 GUIDED MEDIA
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one
device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and
fiber-optic cable.

• Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper)

conductors that accept and transport signals in the form
of electric current.

• Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals

in the form of light.
 Twisted-Pair Cable

A Twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper),

each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together, One of the
wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used
only as a ground reference.
 UTP and STP Cables
STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases
each pair of insulated conductors. Although metal casing improves
the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or
crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.
 Unshielded and Shielded TP
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
• Ordinary telephone wire
• Less expensive
• Weak immunity against noise and interference
• Suffers from external EM interference
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
• An extra metallic sheath on each pair
• Relatively more expensive
• Provide better performance than UTP
• Increased Data rate
• Increased Bandwidth
 Applications
• Telephone lines between house and local exchange
• Within buildings to private branch exchange
• For local area networks

Advantages
• Less expensive
• Easy to work with

Disadvantages
• Low data rate
• Short range
 Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial Cable having two wires, coax has a central core
conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed
in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer
conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.

• The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against

noise and as the second conductor, which completes the
circuit.

• This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath,

and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover
Coaxial cable
Categories of Coaxial Cables

Applications
• Telephone networks
• TV networks
• Traditional Ethernet LANs
 Fiber-Optic Cable
• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits
signals in the form of light.
Propagation Modes
 Optical Fiber - Transmission Characteristics
Operational range
• 1014 to 1015 Hz
• Light source Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• Cheaper
• Wider operating temperature range
• Last longer
Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
• Operates on laser principle
• More efficient
• Greater data rate
• Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
 Optical Fiber  Benefits

Greater capacity
• Data rates of hundreds of Gbps
• Smaller size & weight
• Made up of extremely thin fibers
Lower attenuation
• Electromagnetic isolation
Greater repeater spacing
• 10s of km at least
 UNGUIDED MEDIA(WIRELESS)

• Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves

without using a physical conductor.

• This type of communication is often referred to as

wireless communication.

• Signals are normally broadcast through free space and

thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of
receiving them.
Propagation Methods
Bands
Wireless Transmission Waves
 Radio Waves

Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as

radio and television, and paging systems. They can penetrate
through walls. Highly regulated. Use Omni directional
antennas.

Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies,

can penetrate walls.
 Omnidirectional Antenna

Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals

in all directions. Based on the wavelength, strength, and the
purpose of transmission, we can have several types of antennas.
 Applications

The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them

useful for multicasting, in which there is one sender but many
receivers. AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless
phones, and paging are examples of multicasting .
 Microwaves
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between I and 300
GHz are called microwaves.

• Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits

microwave waves, they can be narrowly focused. This means
that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.

• Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with

the mounted antennas need to be in direct sight of each
other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall.
 Unidirectional Antenna

Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in

one direction. Two types of antennas are used for microwave
communications: the parabolic dish and the horn.
Applications

Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very

useful when unicast (one-to-one) communication is needed
between the sender and the receiver. They are used in cellular
phones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs.
 Infrared

• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz

(wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range
communication.

• Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate

walls.

• This advantageous characteristic prevents interference

between one system and another; a short-range
communication system in one room cannot be affected by
another system in the next room.
 Applications

The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent

potential for data transmission. Such a wide bandwidth can
be used to transmit digital data with a very high data rate.
 Wireless Channels

• Are subject to a lot more errors than guided media channels.

• Interference is one cause for errors, can be circumvented

with high SNR.

• The higher the SNR the less capacity is available for

transmission due to the broadcast nature of the channel.

• Channel also subject to fading and no coverage holes.

Network Topology
 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

A Network Topology is the arrangement with which

computer systems or network devices are connected
to each other. Topologies may define both physical
and logical aspect of the network. Both logical and
physical topologies could be same or different in a
same network.
The physical topology of a network refers to the
configuration of cables, computers and other peripherals.

Different Types of Topologies

• Bus Topology
• Star Topology
• Ring Topology
• Tree or Hybrid Topology
• Mesh Topology
 Bus Topology
• All the nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) on
a bus topology are connected by one single cable.

• A bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a

terminator at each end. All nodes (file server, workstations,
and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.

• Popular on LANs because they are inexpensive and easy to

install.
Bus Topology
 Bus Topology
Advantages of Bus Topology
• It is Cheap, easy to handle and implement.
• Require less cable
• It is best suited for small networks.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
• The cable length is limited. This limits the number of stations
that can be connected.
• This network topology can perform well only for a limited
number of nodes.
 Ring Topology
• In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for
communication purposes.
• All messages travel through a ring in the same direction.
• A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take
down the entire network.
• To implement a ring network we use the Token Ring
technology
• A token, or small data packet, is continuously passed around
the network. When a device needs to transmit, it reserves
the token for the next trip around, then attaches its data
packet to it.
Ring Topology
 Ring Topology
Advantage of Ring Topology
• Easier to Manage than a Bus Network
• Good Communication over long distances
• Handles high volume of traffic
• Very orderly network where every device has access to the
token and the opportunity to transmit.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• The failure of a single node of the network can cause the
entire network to fail.
• The movement or changes made to network nodes affects
the performance of the entire network.
 Star Topology
• In a star network, each node (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) is connected to a central device called a hub.

• The hub takes a signal that comes from any node and
passes it along to all the other nodes in the network.

• Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or

concentrator before continuing to its destination.

• The star topology reduces the chance of network failure by

connecting all of the systems to a central node.
Star Topology
 Star Topology
Advantages of Star Topology
• Easy to manage
• Easy to locate problems (cable/workstations)
• Easier to expand than a bus or ring topology.
• Easy to install and wire.
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
• Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
• If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
• More expensive because of the cost of the concentrators.
 Tree Topology
• A tree topology (hierarchical topology) can be viewed as a
collection of star networks arranged in a hierarchy.
• This tree has individual peripheral nodes which are required to
transmit to and receive from one other only and are not
required to act as repeaters or regenerators.
• The tree topology arranges links and nodes into distinct
hierarchies in order to allow greater control and easier
troubleshooting.
• This is particularly helpful for colleges, universities and schools
so that each of the connect to the big network in some way.
Tree Topology
 Tree Topology
Advantages of a Tree Topology
• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
• Supported by several hardware and software vendors.
• All the computers have access to the larger and their
immediate networks.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
• Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of
cabling used.
• If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes
down.
• More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
 Mesh Topology
• In this topology, each node is connected to every other
node in the network.

• Implementing the mesh topology is expensive and difficult.

• In this type of network, each node may send message to

destination through multiple paths.

• While the data is travelling on the Mesh Network it is

automatically configured to reach the destination by taking
the shortest route which means the least number of hops.
Mesh Topology
 Mesh Topology
Advantage of Mesh Topology
• No traffic problem as there are dedicated links.
• It has multiple links, so if one route is blocked then
other routes can be used for data communication.
• Points to point links make fault identification easy.
Disadvantage of Mesh Topology
• There is mesh of wiring which can be difficult to
manage.
• Installation is complex as each node is connected to
every node.
• Cabling cost is high.
 Hybrid Topology

• A combination of any two or more network topologies.

• A hybrid topology always accrues when two different

basic network topologies are connected.

• It is a mixture of above mentioned topologies. Usually, a

central computer is attached with sub-controllers which in
turn participate in a variety of topologies
Hybrid Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Advantages of a Hybrid Topology

• It is extremely flexible.
• It is very reliable.

Disadvantages of a Hybrid Topology

• Expensive
Internet Working
 Internet Working
Topics
Internetworking with repeaters, bridges and gateways
Internetworking with routers
• the Internet Protocol (IP)
• IP datagram delivery
• IP addresses
 The Internet Working
Build a single network (an interconnected set of networks, or
internetwork, or internet) out of a large collection of separate
networks.
• Each network must stand on its own, with no internal
changes allowed to connect to the internet.
• Communications should be on a best-effort basis.
• “black boxes” (later called routers) should be used to
connect the networks.
• No global control at the operations level.
 Internet Working Challenges
Heterogeneity
• Lots of different kinds of networks (Ethernet,
FDDI, ATM, wireless, point-to-point)
• How to unify this hodgepodge?

Scale
• How to provide unique names for potentially
billions of nodes? (naming)
• How to find all these nodes? (forwarding and
routing)
 Internet Working With Repeaters

r
Repeaters (also
called hubs)
r
(r in the figure)
directly transfer
r bits from their
inputs to their
outputs
r
 Internet Working With Repeaters
Telnet, FTP,
HTTP, email application application

transport transport

network network

data link data link

10Base-T physical physical

Host on Repeater Host on

network A (forwards bits) network B
 Internet Working With Repeaters:
Pros and cons

 Pros
 Transparency
 LANS can be connected without any awareness from the hosts.
 Useful for serving multiple machines in an office from one Ethernet
outlet.
 Cons
 Not scalable
 Ethernet standard allows only 4 repeaters.
 More than 4 would introduce delays that would break contention
detection.
 No heterogeneity
 Networks connected with repeaters must have identical electrical
properties.
 Internet Working With Bridges

b Bridges (b In the figure)

maintain a cache of hosts
on their input segments.
b
Selectively transfer
Ethernet frames from
b their inputs to their
outputs.

b
 Internet Working With Bridges
Telnet, FTP,
HTTP, email application application

transport transport

network network

CSMA/CD data link data link

10Base-T physical physical

Host on Bridge Host on

network A (forwards ethernet network B
frames)
 Bridges
adapter (interface)
A B C

Ethernet A port 1 (really just another adapter)

Unlike repeaters (which operate bridge

port 2
at the physical level), bridges Ethernet X

operate at the data link level X Y Z

(or link level).

By link level, we mean that they

can parse and understand e.g. Ethernet Frames (as opposed to IP packets).

Basic forwarding algorithm (flooding): copy each received frame to all

other ports.
 Cycles in Bridged Networks

1. host writes frame F 2. B1 and B2 flood 3. B2 reads F1,

to unknown destination B1 reads F2
F

B1 B2 B1 B2 B1 B2

F1 F2 F2 F1

4. B1 and B2 flood 5. B1 reads F1 6. B1 and B2 flood

B2 reads F2
F2 F1 F1 F2
B1 B2 B1 B2 B1 B2

F1 F2
Internet Working With Application Gateways

 application gateways (g in
the figure) connect
Network A
different networks for
particular applications.
g x
 Example:
• User on host x posts news
item to gateway machine
phone on network A.
system
• Gateway on A passes item
(along with others) to
Network B gateway B.
• User on host y reads
g y message from gateway on
B.
 Internet Working With Application Gateways

Gateway program
usenet news application application

transport

network

modem data link data link

phone physical physical

Application gateway Application gateway host on network B

on network A on network B
 Internet Working With Routers
 Def: An internetwork (internet for short) is an arbitrary
collection of physical networks interconnected by routers to
provide some sort of host-to-host packet delivery service.

host
host host
host

internet
internet

host
host host
host
 Building an Internet

We start with two separate, unconnected computer networks (subnets),

which are at different locations, and possibly built by different vendors.

AA BB CC XX YY ZZ

adapter
adapter adapter
adapter adapter
adapter adapter
adapter adapter
adapter adapter
adapter
Ethernet ATM
network 1 (SCS) network 2 (ECE)

Question: How to present the illusion of one network?

 Building an Internet
Next we physically connect one of the computers, called a
router (in this case computer C), to each of the networks.

AA BB CC(router)
(router) XX YY ZZ

adapter
adapter adapter
adapter adapter
adapter adapter
adapter adapter
adapter adapter
adapter adapter
adapter

network 1 (SCS) network 2 (ECE)

 Building an Internet
Finally, we run a software implementation of the Internet Protocol
(IP) on each host and router. IP provides a global name space for
the hosts, routing messages between network1 and network 2 if
necessary.
128.2.250.0
IP addresses: 128.2.250.1 128.2.250.2 128.2.80.0 128.2.80.1 128.2.80.2 128.2.80.3

AA BB CC(router)
(router) XX YY ZZ

adapter
adapter adapter
adapter adapter
adapter adapter
adapter adapter
adapter adapter
adapter adapter
adapter

network 1 (SCS) network 2 (ECE)

 Building an Internet
At this point we have an internet consisting of 6 computers built from
2 original networks. Each computer on our internet can communicate
with any other computer. IP provides the illusion that there is just
one network.

128.2.250.1 128.2.80.1
128.2.80.1
128.2.250.1

internet
internet
128.2.250.2
128.2.250.2 128.2.80.2
128.2.80.2

128.2.80.3
128.2.80.3

128.2.250.0
128.2.250.0
128.2.80.3
128.2.80.3
 Internet Working With Routers

Telnet, FTP,
HTTP, email application application

transport transport

IP network network

CSMA/CD data link data link

10Base-T physical physical

Host on Router Host on

network A (forwards IP packets) network B
 IP: Internet Working With Routers

 IP is the most successful protocol Many different kinds

ever developed of applications
 Keys to success: and
higher-level
 simple enough to implement on top of protocols
any physical network
 e.g., two tin cans and a string.
IP
 rich enough to serve as the base for
implementations of more complicated
protocols and applications. Many different
 The IP designers never dreamed of kinds
something like the Web. of networks
 “rough consensus and working code”
 resulted in solid implementable specs. The “Hourglass Model”,
Dave Clark, MIT
 Internet Protocol Stack
Berkeley sockets interface

User
Userapplication
applicationprogram
program(FTP,
(FTP,Telnet,
Telnet,WWW,
WWW,email)
email)
Reliable
Unreliable User
best effort Userdatagram
datagramprotocol
protocol Transmission
Transmissioncontrol
control byte stream
(UDP)
(UDP) protocol
protocol(TCP)
(TCP) delivery
datagram (process-
delivery Internet process)
(process- InternetProtocol
Protocol(IP)
(IP)
process)
Network
Networkinterface
interface(ethernet)
(ethernet)
Unreliable
best effort
hardware Physical
datagram hardware
connection
delivery
(host-host)
 IP Service Model
 IP service model:
 Delivery model: IP provides best-effort delivery of datagram
(connectionless) packets between two hosts.
 IP tries but doesn’t guarantee that packets will arrive (best
effort)
 packets can be lost or duplicated (unreliable)
 ordering of datagrams not guaranteed (connectionless)
 Naming scheme: IP provides a unique address (name) for each
host in the Internet.
 Why would such a limited delivery model be useful?
 simple, so it runs on any kind of network
 provides a basis for building more sophisticated and user-friendly
protocols like TCP and UDP
 IP Datagram Delivery: Example Internet

Network 1 (Ethernet)
H1 H2 H3
H7 R3 H8
Network 2
(Ethernet) R1 Network 4
R2
(Point-to-point)

Network 3 (FDDI)

H4 H5 H6
Data Transmission
 Data Transmission

• Data transmission occurs between a transmitter &

receiver via some medium

• Guided medium
eg. twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber

• Unguided / wireless medium

eg. air, water, vacuum
Data Communications Model
 Data and Signals

Data: entities that convey meaning

• analog data:
continuous values within some interval
e.g. sound, video
• digital data:
discrete values
e.g. text, integers
Analogue & Digital Signals
Signals (electromagnetic or electric): means by which data are
propagated

• Analog (or contiguous) signal is continuously varying

electromagnetic wave that propagates over (a variety of)
Medium.

• Digital (or discrete) signal is sequence of voltage pulses

that are transmitted over a wire medium. The signal
intensity maintains a constant level for some time and then
changes to another constant level.
Analog Signal Carrying Analog & Digital Data
Digital Signal Carrying Analog & Digital Data
 Transmission System
• Transmission is communication of data by propagation and
processing of signals
• Transmission system includes:
transmission medium
amplifiers or repeaters
• Transmission medium
guided medium
unguided medium
• Guided transmission medium:
point-to-point: only 2 devices share link
multi-point: more than two devices share the link
 Analog Transmission

• Analog signal transmitted without regard to content

• May be analog or digital data

• Attenuated over distance

• Use amplifiers to boost signal

• Also amplifies noise

 Digital Transmission
• Signal may be analog or digital
• Signal may be carrying digital data or analog data,
• Repeaters (also called regenerator) used receives signal,
extracts bit pattern and retransmits
• Attenuation is overcome
• Noise is not amplified
• Advantages:
— Digital technology: low cost LSI/VLSI technology
— Data integrity: longer distances over lower quality lines
— Capacity utilization: high bandwidth
— Lntegration: can treat analog and digital data similarly
 Transmission Systems and Signals
• Any transmission system supports a limited band of
frequencies, i.e. it passes only a certain range of frequencies.

• Thus, the bandwidth of a signal should match that of a

transmission system for the signal to be efficiently transferred
through the given transmission system.

• We shall see that a limited band of frequencies is one of the

main factors that limits the data rate that can be carried both
by signal and by transmission system.
 Components of Speech

• Frequency range (of hearing) 20Hz-20kHz

— Speech 100Hz-7kHz

• Easily converted into electromagnetic signal for transmission

• Sound frequencies with varying volume converted into

electromagnetic frequencies with varying voltage

• Limit frequency range for voice channel

— 300-3400Hz
 Video Components
• USA - 483 lines scanned per frame at 30 frames per second
— 525 lines but 42 lost during vertical retrace

• So 525 lines x 30 scans = 15750 lines per second

— 63.5μs per line, (11μs for retrace, so 52.5 μs per video line)

• Max frequency if line alternates black and white

• Horizontal resolution is about 450 lines giving 225 cycles of

wave in 52.5 μs

• Max frequency of 4.2MHz

 Transmission Modes
• We use the term transmission mode to refer to the manner in
which data is sent over the underlying medium
• Transmission modes can be divided into two fundamental
categories:

Serial — one bit is sent at a time

Serial transmission is further categorized according to timing of
transmissions

Parallel — multiple bits are sent at the same time

 Parallel Transmission
• Parallel transmission allows transfers of multiple data bits at
the same time over separate media

• In general, parallel transmission is used with a wired medium

that uses multiple, independent wires

• Furthermore, the signals on all wires are synchronized so that a

bit travels across each of the wires at precisely the same time

• Figure 9.2 illustrates the concept, and shows why engineers

use the term parallel to characterize the wiring
Parallel Transmission
 Parallel Transmission

The figure omits two important details:

First, in addition to the parallel wires that each carry data a

parallel interface usually contains other wires that allow the
sender and receiver to coordinate

Second, to make installation and troubleshooting easy the

wires for a parallel transmission system are placed in a
single physical cable
A parallel mode of transmission has two chief advantages:
• High speed: it can send N bits at the same time a parallel
interface can operate N times faster than an equivalent
serial interface

• Match to underlying hardware: Internally, computer and

communication hardware uses parallel circuitry

• a parallel interface matches the internal hardware well

 Serial Transmission
• Serial transmission sends one bit at a time
• It may seem that anyone would choose parallel transmission for
high speeds However, most communication systems use serial
mode

There are two main reasons

• First, serial networks can be extended over long distances at
much less cost
• Second, using only one physical wire means that there is
never a timing problem caused by one wire being slightly
longer than another
Serial Transmission
 Serial Transmission

• The hardware needed to convert data between an internal

parallel form and a serial form can be straightforward or complex
depending on the type of serial communication mechanism

• In the simplest case, a single chip that is known as a Universal

Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (UART) performs the
conversion

• A related chip, Universal Synchronous-Asynchronous Receiver

and Transmitter (USART) handles conversion for synchronous
networks
 Transmission Order: Bits and Bytes
• In serial mode, when sending bits, which bit should be sent
across the medium first?
• Consider an integer: Should a sender transmit
the Most Significant Bit (MSB)
or the Least Significant Bit (LSB) first?
• We use the term little-endian to describe a system that sends
the LSB first
• We use the term big-endian to describe a system that sends
the MSB first
• Either form can be used, but the sender and receiver must
agree
 Asynchronous Transmission

• It is asynchronous if the system allows the physical medium

to be idle for an arbitrary time between two transmissions

• The asynchronous style of communication is well-suited to

applications that generate data at random
(e.g., a user typing on a keyboard or a user that clicks on a
link)
The disadvantage of asynchrony arises from the lack of
coordination between sender and receiver
• While the medium is idle, a receiver cannot know how
long the medium will remain idle before more data arrives

Asynchronous technologies usually arrange for a sender to

transmit a few extra bits before each data item
• to inform the receiver that a data transfer is starting
• extra bits allow the receiver to synchronize with the
incoming signal
• the extra bits are known as a preamble or start bits
 RS-232 Asynchronous Character Transmission
It is asynchronous if the system allows the physical medium to
be idle for an arbitrary time between two transmissions
The asynchronous style of communication is well-suited to
applications that generate data at random
(e.g., a user typing on a keyboard or a user that clicks on a
link)

Consider the transfer of characters across copper wires between

a computer and a device such as a keyboard
• each data item represents one character
It is standardized by the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA)
• It has become the most widely used for character
communication
• Known as RS-232-C, and commonly abbreviated RS-232

EIA standard specifies the details, such as

• physical connection size (max cable length 50 feet long)
• electrical details (range between -15v +15v)
• the line coding being used
• It can be configured to control the exact number of bits
per second
• It can be configured to send 7-bit or 8-bit characters
RS-232 Asynchronous Character Transmission
 Synchronous Transmission

A synchronous mechanism transmits bits of data continually

• with no idle time between bits
• after transmitting the final bit of one data byte, the sender
transmits a bit of the next data byte

The sender and receiver constantly remain synchronized

• which means less synchronization overhead

On a synchronous system
• each character is sent without start or stop bits
Synchronous Transmission
 Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full-Duplex Transmission
A communications channel is classified as one of three types:
(depending on the direction of transfer)
• Simplex
• Full-Duplex
• Half-Duplex
Simplex: a simplex mechanism can only transfer data in a single
direction. It is analogous to broadcast radio or television
Full-Duplex: allows transmission in two directions simultaneously
• It is analogous to a voice telephone conversation
in which a participant can speak even if they are able to hear
background music at the other end
Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full-Duplex Transmission
 DCE and DTE Equipment
• Terms Data Communications Equipment (DCE) and Data Terminal
Equipment (DTE) were originally created by AT&T
• To distinguish between the communications equipment
owned by the phone company and the terminal equipment
owned by a subscriber
• The terminology persists: if a business leases a data circuit from a
phone company
• the phone company installs DCE equipment at the business
• and the business purchases DTE equipment that attaches to
the phone company’s equipment
 Shannon Capacity

— A transmission line may experience interference from a

number of sources, called noise. Noise is measured in terms of
signal to noise power ratio, expressed in decibels:

— The effects of noise on channel capacity can be seen using

the Shannon-Hartley Law:
BUS ACCESS METHODS
 Random Access Protocol

• ALOHA (Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA)

• CSMA
• CSMA/CD
• CSMA/CA
 ALOHA Protocol
• The original ALOHA protocol is called pure ALOHA.

• ALOHA is developed in the 1970s at the University of Hawaii.

• The basic idea is simple: let users transmit whenever they

have data to be sent.

• If two or more users send their packets at the same time, a

collision occurs and the packets are destroyed.

• Each station sends a frame whenever it has a frame to send.

Figure Frames in a Pure ALOHA Network
A Sketch of Frame Generation
 Efficiency in ALOHA Channel

S = GP0

S: Throughput
G: Mean of Regenerated and New frames
P0: Probability that a frame does not suffer a collision
 SLOTTED ALOHA
• In slotted aloha we divide the time into slots.
• Frames can only be transmitted at beginning of slot:
“discrete” ALOHA.
 SLOTTED ALOHA

Efficiency

S = G e-G.
S = Smax = 1/e = 0.368 for G = 1.
 CARRIER SENSE MULTIPLE ACCESS

• CSMA protocol was developed to overcome the problem found

in ALOHA i.e. to minimize the chances of collision, so as to
improve the performance.

• CSMA protocol is based on the principle of ‘carrier sense’.

• The chances of collision can be reduce to great extent if a

station senses the channel before trying to use it.

• Although CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision, but it

cannot eliminate it completely.
 1-Persistent CSMA

While there is a new frame A to send do

• Check the medium
• If the medium is busy, go to 1.
• (medium idle) Send frame A and wait for ACK
• If after some time ACK is not received (timer times out),
wait a random amount of time and go to 1.
End.
 Non-Persistent CSMA

While there is a new frame A to send DO

• Check the medium
• If the medium is busy, wait some time, and go to 1.
• (medium idle) Send frame A and wait for ACK
• If after some time ACK is not received (timer times out), wait
a random amount of time and go to 1.
 P-Persistent CSMA

While there is a new frame A to send do

• Check the medium
• If the medium is busy, go to 1.
• (medium idle) With probability p send frame A and the go
to 4, and probability (1- p) delay one time slot and go to 1.
• If after some time ACK is not received (timer times out),
wait a random amount of time and go to 1.
 CSMA/CD

• CSMA with collision detection.

• Problem: when frames collide, medium is unusable for
duration of both (damaged) frames.
• For long frames (when compared to propagation time),
considerable waste.
• What if station listens while transmitting?
 CSMA/CD Protocol

1. If medium idle, transmit; otherwise 2.

2. If medium busy, wait until idle, then transmit with p=1.
3. If collision detected, transmit brief jamming signal and abort
transmission.
4. After aborting, wait random time, try again.
 Media ACCESS Control

• The MAC sub layer provides addressing and channel access

control mechanisms that make it possible for several terminals
or network nodes to communicate within a multiple access
network that incorporates a shared medium (defines access
method for each LAN)

• A part of framing is also handled by the MAC layer

• In contrast to the LLC sublayer, the MAC sublayer contains a

number of distinct modules , each define the access method and
the framing format specific to the corresponding LAN protocol
Error Handling Field Bus
 Overview

 CAN is an important embedded protocol

 Primarily automotive, but used in many other places
 CAN specifies:
 Physical layer
 Protocol layer
 Message filtering layer (with add-on protocols)

148
 The Development of CAN
The development of CAN began when more and more
electronic devices were implemented into modern motor
vehicles. Examples of such devices includes air
conditioning, airbags and central locking.

The requirement for information exchange has then

grown to such an extent that a cable network with a
length of up to several miles and many connectors was
required.
149
 A Basic CAN Controller

 Cheap CAN controller – CPU could get overrun with

messages even if it didn’t need them.

150
 Full CAN Controller
 Hardware message filters sort & filter messages
without interrupting CPU

151
CAN (SAE J1939) Example: Caterpillar 797

152
Before CAN

153
 With CAN
This bus had to fulfill some special requirements due to its usage
in a vehicle. With the use of CAN, point-to-point wiring is
replaced by one serial bus connecting all control systems.

154
 The CAN Bus
 CAN is a broadcast type of bus.
This means that all nodes can "hear" all transmissions. There is no way to send a
message to just a specific node; all nodes will invariably pick up all traffic. The
CAN hardware, however, provides local filtering so that each node may react
only on the “interesting” messages.

155
Basic Configuration

156
 CAN Bus Overview

 The physical layer uses differential transmission on a twisted pair wire.

The bus uses Non-Return To Zero (NRZ) with bit-stuffing.

 Message length is short with a maximum of 8 data bytes per message.

 The nodes are connected to the bus in a wired-and fashion: if just one
node is driving the bus to a logical 0, then the whole bus is in that state
regardless of the number of nodes transmitting a logical 1.

 Max. transfer rate of 1000 kilobits per second

157
Basic Bit Encoding

158
CAN Bus Characteristics

159
 Bus Characteristics – Wired AND

Only if all nodes transmit recessive bits If any one node transmits a dominant bit
(ones), the Bus is in the recessive state. (zero), the bus is in the dominant state.

T is Transmitter, R is receiver. Note nodes can therefore check the line while
transmitting. This is important particularly during arbitration.
160
 Bus Access and Arbitration – CSMA/CD NDA
CSMA/CD NDA – Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision avoidance by Non
Destructive arbitration

161
 Bus Transmission Speed
Arbitration limits bus speed. Maximum speed = 2 x tpd
tpd = propagation delay of electrical medium

162
 The Can Protocol

 Specifies how small packets of data may be transported from

point A to point B using a shared communications medium.
 It (quite naturally) contains nothing on topics such as
 flow control
 transportation of data larger than can fit in a 8-byte message
 node addresses
 establishment of communication, etc.
163
 The CAN Standard
 The CAN standard defines four message types
 Data Frame – the predominantly used message type
 Remote Frame
 Error Frame
 Overload Frame
 The messages uses a clever scheme of bit-wise arbitration to control access
to the bus, and each message is tagged with a priority.
 The CAN standard also defines an elaborate scheme for error handling and
confinement.
 CAN may implemented using different physical layers, and there are also a
number of different connector types in use.
164
 CAN Data Frames
 CAN 2.0A (“standard CAN” 11-bit ID) Data Frame.

 CAN 2.0B (“extended CAN” 29-bit ID) Data Frame.

165
 Remote Frame
 There's one catch with the Remote Frame: the Data Length Code
must be set to the length of the expected response message.
Otherwise the arbitration will not work.
 Sometimes it is claimed that the node responding to the Remote
Frame is starting its transmission as soon as the identifier is
recognized, thereby "filling up" the empty Remote Frame. This is
not the case.

166
 The Error Frame
The Error Frame consists of an Error Flag, which is 6 bits of the same
value (thus violating the bit-stuffing rule) and an Error Delimiter, which
is 8 recessive bits. The Error Delimiter provides some space in which the
other nodes on the bus can send their Error Flags when they detect the
first Error Flag.

The Error Frame

167
 The Overload Frame

 It is very similar to the Error Frame with regard to the format and
it is transmitted by a node that becomes too busy.
 The Overload Frame is not used very often, as today's CAN
controllers are clever enough not to use it.
 In fact, the only controller that will generate Overload Frames is
the now obsolete 82526

168
MAP and TOP PROTOCAL
 Manufacturing Automation Protocol (MAP)
• The manufacturing automation protocol (MAP) was developed
by General Motors to meet its manufacturing integration
needs.

• MAP supports application-layer protocols such as

manufacturing messaging specifications (MMS), intended for
real time communication between such devices.

• It uses the ISO reference model and coordinates with the

Technical and Office Protocol (TOP) developed by Boeing
Company for office communications, and other standards. TOP
and MAP share the standards on several layers.
MAP 2.1 Standard
 MAP Physical Layer
Broadband
• many simultaneous communications on same wire at same
time, using varied frequencies for transmit channels and
receive channels.
• uses a head end re-modulator to retransmit the signal
• each station needs MAP hardware
• uses a 1 inch (2.5 cm) thick cable
• maximum 10 Mégabits/sec. per channel
Carrierband
• uses smaller cables
• less expensive
• rate of 5 to 10 Megabits second (single channel)
 MAP Data Link Layer

• Real time response was required, so token passing is used

• If a token passing ring is broken, the computers will wait, and
eventually each half of the broken ring will have tokens being
passed

Preferred Standards
• Preferred LAN is IEEE 802.4 token-passing bus.
• Uses standard ISO network, transport, session, and
presentation layers
• CNMA has lobbied for the inclusion of Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) as
an
alternative for the standard
 MAP Application Layer

1. FTAM (File Transfer Access Method) for file transfer

2. MMS (Manufacturing Message System) for content of

messages bound for robotic equipment

3. ACSE (Association Control for Service Elements) for program

to program communication

4. The set of protocols should make communication between

heterogeneous devices, not only in moving data around, but also
in communication the meaning of that data
 MMS Modeling

• The dominant aspect of MMS (Manufacturing Message

Specification ISO/IEC 9506 Part I) is the concept of modeling.

• MMS defines models that describe the way in which resources

are made available and the way in which these resources are
accessed.

• At the center of the MMS modeling concept are: the Virtual

Manufacturing Device (VMD) abstract object models.
 Virtual Manufacturing Device (VMD)

• The VMD describes the externally visible behavior of an MMS

device when it makes resources (i.e., data table memory
program files) available to other MMS devices.

• Assume, for example, that an MMS device exists and it make

system data table memory available to other MMS devices. It
is the VMD that describes the way in which that MMS device
makes the data table memory available.
 Virtual Manufacturing Device (VMD)

• This mapping of a device to the VMD model establishes a

device as a virtual device on the MAP network, allowing it
to be accessed by other virtual devices through the use of
MMS services.

• Note that the VMD model theoretically exists within an

MMS device
 The MMS Abstract Object Models
• MMS also defines a series of abstract object models that
describe the externally visible behavior associated with a
particular MMS service or group of services.

• The concept of object models is entirely abstract within the

MMS specification, but represents real resources within a
system.

• This results in a standard external view of all MMS devices

that make system resources available, but allows each MMS
device to implement the model in a manner that is
appropriate for the system
 The MMS Abstract Object Models

• The models define abstract objects which are part of

the VMD

• An application program calls on the MMS services

associated with a particular object to perform
operations on that object.
 TOP (Technical and Office Protocol)
• TOP (Technical and Office Protocols) is designed for the office
environment.

TOP 3.0 nel 1987

• Layers 1 and 2 Preferred LAN is IEEE 802.3 Ethernet, But allows
for Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) and Token Ring (IEEE 802.5). Fibre
optical media will be added
• when they are defined
Layers 3-6
uses same ISO standards for network, transport, session and
presentation layers that MAP uses
 TOP Application Layer

• ACSE and FTAM are the same as MAP, MMS is not included

• (MHS) CCITT X.400 message handling service provides

electronic mail transfers of all types of documents

• ISO Virtual terminal protocol to allow a terminal on any

machine to log onto any other machine.
 TOP Application Layer
• ODA/ODIF (ISO Office Document Architecture and Office
Document Interchange Format) To permit formatted
documents to be transmitted independently of the package
used to create them (Text, and Raster or Line graphics).

• CGM (ISO Computer Graphics Metafile) to permit the

exchange of geometrical graphics

• IGES (ANSI Initial Graphics Exchange Standard) to exchange

product design information among CAD/CAM workstations.
Features and Capabilities of Various Field
Buses
 Field Bus

• The augmented term Fieldbus is consisting of two terms, Field

and Bus.

• To start, the meaning of Field, as defined in industrial world,

is a geographical or contextual limited area.

• As for the term Bus is a well-known word in computer

science as a set of common line that electrically (or even
optically) connects various units (circuits) in order to transfer
the data among them.
• The Origin of the fieldbus was to replace any point-to-point links
between the field devices (Field Devices are simply the Sensors
and Actuators of the plant) and their controllers (like PLC's,
CNC's …etc.) by a digital single link on which all the information
is transmitted serially and multiplexed in time.

• The Fieldbus transfers information in small-sized packets in

serial manner.
 Types of Field Buses

• World Factory Instrumentation Protocol (World FIP)

• Process Field Bus (PROFIBUS)

• Controller Area Network (CAN)

• MOD Bus
 Controller Area Network (CAN)

The CAN protocol is a priority-based bus network using a Carrier

Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
medium access scheme. In this protocol any station can access
the bus whenever it becomes idle. However, unlike to the
Ethernet networks, the collision resolution is non-destructive,
which means that one of the messages being transmitted will
succeed.
This Collision Resolution Mechanism in CAN Works as Follows:

• when the bus becomes idle, every station with pending

messages will start to transmit. Due to its open-collector nature,
the CAN bus acts as a big AND-gate, where each station is able to
read the bus status.

• During the transmission of the identifier field, if a station is

transmitting a "1" and reads a "0", it means that there was a
collision with at least one higher-priority message, and this
station aborts the message transmission at once.
• Thus the highest-priority message being transmitted will
proceed without encountering any collision, and thus will
be successfully transmitted to its destination. Obviously,
each message stream must be uniquely identified.
 PROFI BUS

• The PROFIBUS protocol is based on a token passing procedure

used by master stations to grant the bus access to each other,
and a master-slave procedure used by master stations to
communicate with slave stations.

• The PROFIBUS token passing procedure uses a simplified

version of the Timed-token protocol.

• PROFIBUS provides communication for process data and

parameters for over 3000 different devices from over 300
different manufacturers.
PROFIBUS supports four data transmission services which are:

• Send Data with No-Acknowledge (SDN)

• Send Data with Acknowledge (SDA)
• Request Data with Reply (RDR)
• Send and Request Data (SRD)
 PROFIBUS Comes in Two Main Forms:

(1) PROFIBUS DP - Decentralized Periphery

• Low cost, simple, high speed field-level communications.

• All modern PROFIBUS applications use DP.

(2) PROFIBUS PA - Process Automation

• Developed specifically for the process industry to replace 4-

20mA transmission.
• Two-wire connection carrying both power and data.
• DP is commonly used in manufacturing and general
automation.
• PA is used for process type applications where speed is less
important. However DP is always used as a backbone for PA
systems.
• Data is exchanged in all PROFIBUS networks using messages
or telegrams that pass between stations.

• Master stations control the network communications.

• Slave stations respond to telegrams from their controlling

master.
– A network can have one or more master stations.
– Each master can control (communicate with) many slaves.
– However each slave can only be controlled by one master.
A slave is locked to a particular master.
 Devices
ProfiBus supports two main types of devices, namely, masters
and slaves.
• Master devices control the bus and when they have the right
to access the bus, they may transfer messages without any
remote request. These are referred to as active stations.

• Slave devices are typically peripheral devices i.e.

transmitters/sensors and actuators. They may only
acknowledge received messages or, at the request of a
master, transmit messages to that master. These are also
referred to as passive stations.
 Profi Bus Standards and Communication Levels
There are several versions of the standard (fig.1), namely,
ProfiBus DP (master /slave), ProfiBus FMS (multi-master/peer-to-
peer), and ProfiBus PA (intrinsically safe).
 Profi Bus Layers

PROFIBUS protocol architecture follows the ISO / OSI (open

system interconnection) reference model, in line with
international standard ISO 7498.

In this model each layer takes on precisely defined tasks.

Layer 1 (physical layer) defines the physical transmission
technology. Layer 2 (data link layer) defines the bus access
procedure.
Layer 7 (application layer) defines the user level.
 PROFIBUS Layer 1 (Physical Layer)
A fieldbus system’s field of use is essentially determined by the
choice of transmission medium and the physical bus interface.

• Cable-bound Transmission:
• Fiber-Optic Cable
• Intrinsically Safe Transmission: PROFIBUS-PA enables the
intrinsically safe transmission and supply of stations across
the bus. The transmission technology is described in
international standard IEC 1158-2.
 PROFIBUS Layer 2 (Data Link Layer)

The PROFIBUS bus access method therefore includes a token-

passing procedure for communication between complex
stations (masters) and an underlying master-slave procedure
for the communication of complex stations with low-expense
peripheral devices (slaves). This combined procedure is called a
hybrid bus access procedure.
Fig Hybrid Bus Access Method
 PROFI BUS Layer 7 (Application Layer)
Layer 7 of the OSI model provides the application services to the
user. These services make an efficient and open data transfer
possible between the application programs and layer 2.

The PROFIBUS application layer is specified in DIN 19 245 part 2

and consists of:
- The Fieldbus message specification (FMS)
- The lower layer interface (LLI)
- The Fieldbus management services – layer 7 (FMA 7)
 World Factory Instrumentation Protocol (World FIP)
• A World FIP network interconnects stations with two types;
either a bus arbitration station or production/consumption
stations. At any given time instant, only one station can be the
bus arbitration station. Hence, in World FIP, the medium access
control is centralized, and performed by the active bus
arbitrator or what is known as the BA.

• World FIP supports two basic types of transmission services:

exchange of identified variables and exchange of messages.
• In World FIP, the exchange of identified variables is based on a
Producer/Consumer model, which relates producers and
consumers within a distributed system.

• The World FIP Data Link Layer (DLL) is made up of a set of

produced and consumed buffers, which can be locally
accessed (through application layer services) or remotely
accessed through network services.

• In World FIP networks, the bus arbitrator table (BAT)

regulates the scheduling of all buffer transfers. There are two
types of buffer transfers that can be considered in World FIP.
These are:periodic and aperiodic (sporadic).
 Mod Bus
• MODBUS is an application layer messaging protocol
• Positioned at level 7 of the OSI model.
• Provides client/server communication between devices
connected on different types of buses or networks
• Typically used for communication with I/O systems, including
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs).

• Supports following communication links:

• TCPTCP/IP using standard port 502.
• Serial RTU protocol, using RS-232, RS-422, or RS-485.
Directly transmits each byte as 8 data bits, so uses "binary"
rather than ASCII encoding.
 Serial ASCII protocol, Using RS-232, RS-422, or RS-485.

• Encodes each byte as 2 ASCII characters.

• Start and end of message frames is detected by specific
characters (" to start a message and CR/LF to end a
message”).
• Less efficient than RTU, but may be more reliable in some
environments.
Data types
• Single bits
• 16-bit registers
Modbus request messages contain:

• An 8-bit Modbus function code that describes the type of

data transfer to be performed.
• A 16-bit Modbus address that describes the location in the
server to read or write data from.
• For write operations, the data to be transferred.
MODBUS PLUS is a higher speed network 1 Mbit/s token passing
derivative that uses the MODBUS messaging structure.
MODBUS TCP/IP uses TCP/IP and Ethernet 10 Mbit/s or 100 Mbits/s
to carry the MODBUS messaging structure.
 Modbus Read Function Codes
• For read function codes the driver spawns a poller thread.
• Poller thread reads the entire block of Modbus memory
assigned to this port in a single Modbus transaction.
• Values stored in a buffer in the driver.
• Delay between polls is set when the port driver is created, and
can be changed later at run-time.
• Values are read by EPICS using the standard asyn interfaces
(asynUInt32Digital, asynInt32, etc.)
 Modbus Write Function Codes

• For write function codes the driver does not itself create a
separate thread.
• Driver does the Modbus I/O immediately in response to the write
operations on the standard asyn interfaces.
• This means that EPICS write operations are asynchronous, i.e.
they do block because Modbus I/O is required.
• When the Modbus driver is created it tells asynManager that it
can block, and asynManager creates a separate thread that
executes the write operations.
Word write operations using the asynUInt32Digital interface (with
a mask parameter that is not 0x0 or 0xFFFF) are done using
read/modify/write operations.
• Allows multiple Modbus clients to write and read single words
in the same block of Modbus memory.
• However, it does not guarantee correct operation if multiple
Modbus clients (or the PLC itself) can modify bits within a
single word.
For write operations it is possible to specify that a single read
operation should be done when the port driver is created.
• This is normally used so that EPICS obtains the current value
of an output device.
Comparison Between Different Types of Field Buses
BACnet: Building Automation Control net.
CAN: Control Area Network.
World FIP: World Factory Instrumentation Protocol.
ISP: Interoperable Systems Project.
CSMA: Carrier Sense Multiple Access.
CR: Collision Resolution.
CA: Collision Avoidance.
CD: Collision Detection.
RF: Radio Frequency.
TP: Twisted Pair (cable).
Coax: Coaxial Cable.
 HART
Highway Addressable Remote
Transducer
 INTRODUCTION
 The HART Communications Protocol is an early implementation
of Fieldbus a digital industrial automation protocol.
 Its most notable advantage is that it can communicate over legacy 4-
20 mA analog instrumentation wiring, sharing the pair of wires used by
the older system
 HART Protocol is the global standard for sending and receiving digital
information across analog wires between smart devices and control or
monitoring system.
 HART is a bi-directional communication protocol that provides data
access between intelligent field instruments and host systems
 Smart Field Devices

 Smart field devices have the ability to automate some

testing protocols. Partial-stroke testing (PST) of emergency
shutdown (ESD) valves is now a regular practice in many
plants.
 Converting raw data into useful information
 Process data in addition to the primary process variable
can improve safety system performance. Many smart
instruments are multivariable devices that make
measurements in addition to the main variable.
The HART Technology
• The HART protocol makes use of the Bell 202 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) standard
to superimpose digital communication signals at a low level on top of the 4-20 mA.
Since the digital FSK signal is phase continuous, it does not interfere with the 4-20
mA signal. A logical “1” is represented by a frequency of 1200 Hz and a logical “0” is
represented by a frequency of 2200 Hz
• The HART FSK signalling enables two-way digital communication and makes
it possible for additional information beyond just the normal process variable
to be communicated to or from a smart field instrument. The HART protocol
communicates at 1200 bits per second without interrupting the 4-20 mA
signal and allows a host application (master) to get two or more digital
updates per second from a field device.
 Theory of Operation
COMMUNICATION MODES
1. Master Slave Mode
• It is also called “Poll-Response mode”.

• During normal operation, each slave (field device) communication

is initiated by a master communication device (Controller).

• HART provides for up to two masters -primary and secondary.

• The primary master is generally a distributed control system (DCS),

programmable logic controller (PLC), or a personal computer (PC).
• The secondary master can be a handheld terminal or another PC.
Slave devices include transmitters, actuators, and controllers that
respond to commands from the primary or secondary master.

The secondary master can be a handheld terminal or another PC.

Slave devices include transmitters, actuators, and controllers that
respond to commands from the primary or secondary master.
Universal Handheld Communicator
 Communication Modes of HART

2. Burst Mode

• In bursfast updation of the value of a measured variable is

required.t mode, the master instructs the slave device to
continuously broadcast a standard HART reply message (e.g., the
value of the process variable). The master receives the message
at the higher rate until it instructs the slave to stop bursting. It is
also called “Broadcast Mode”.

• It has a maximum communication speed of 3 messages/ second.

It is generally used where
Burst Mode
 HART Networks
There are two types of HART networks:
1. Point-to-Point Mode
• Here, the traditional 4–20 mA signal is used to communicate
one process variable, while additional process variables,
configuration parameters, and other device data are transferred
digitally using the HART protocol.
• The HART communication digital signal gives access to secondary
variables and other data that can be used for operations,
commissioning, maintenance, and diagnostic purposes.
• The 4–20 mA analog signal is not affected by the HART signal and
can be used for control in the normal way.
 HART Networks

2. Multidrop Mode

• In Multidrop operation, the devices exchange their data and

measured values only via the HART protocol. The analog current
signal serves just to energize the two-wire devices, providing a
direct current of 4 mA.

• Up to 15 field devices are connected in parallel to a single wire

pair and the host distinguishes the field devices by their present
addresses which range from 1 to 15.
• The Multidrop mode of operation requires only a single pair of
wires and, if applicable, safety barriers and an auxiliary power
supply for up to 15 field devices . All process values are
transmitted digitally. In Multidrop Mode, the current through
each device is fixed to a minimum value (typically 4 mA).

• Generally, Multidrop connection is used for supervisory control

installations that are widely spaced, such as pipelines, custody
transfer stations, and tank farms.
 HART Commands

• The HART command set provides uniform and consistent

communication for all field devices.
• Command set includes three classes:
1. Universal
All devices using the HART protocol must recognize and support
the universal commands. Universal commands provide access to
information useful in normal operations (e.g., read primary
variable and units).
2. Common practice commands provide functions implemented
by many, but not necessarily all, HART communication devices.
 WIRELESS HART

• Enable wireless communication for process

measurement & control
• As easy as HART over 4-20mA
• Little to no additional training required
• Same tools and procedures for configuration and
maintenance
• Enable wireless access to existing HART devices
• Same integration with systems wire or wireless
Wired + Wireless – Works Together
HART Technology Can Help You
• Leverage the capabilities of a full set of intelligent device data
for operational improvements.
• Gain early warnings to variances in device, product or process
performance.
• Speed the troubleshooting time between the identification
and resolution of problems.
• Continuously validate the integrity of loops and
control/automation system strategies.
• Increase asset productivity and system availability.
Increase Plant Availability
• Integrate devices and systems for detection of previously
undetectable problems.
• Detect device and/or process connection problems real time.
• Avoid the high cost of unscheduled shutdowns or process
disruptions.
Reduce Maintenance Costs
• Reduce spares inventory and device management costs.
• Capture performance trend data for predictive maintenance
diagnostics.
Improve Regulatory Compliance
• Enable automated record keeping of compliance data.

• Facilitates automated safety shutdown testing.

• Raise SIL/safety integrity level with advanced diagnostics.

• Take advantage of intelligent multivariable devices for more

thorough, accurate reporting.
The Benefits of HART Protocol Communication in Smart
Instrumentation Systems
Digital Capability
• Access to all instrument parameters & diagnostics
• Supports multivariable instruments
• On-line device status
Analog Compatibility
• Simultaneous analog & digital communication
• Compatible with existing 4-20 mA equipment & wiring Interoperability
• Fully open de facto standard
• Common Command and data structure
• Enhanced by Device Description Language
Availability
• Field proven technology with more than 1,400,000installations
• Large and growing selection of products
• Used by more smart instruments than any other in the industry
IEEE Project 1002 on LAN Implementation.
 IEEE
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

• Leading developer of industry and standards in a

broad range of technologies

• Mission: foster technological innovation and

excellence for the benefit of humanity.
 802 Networking Models

• provides detailed implementation specifications for a

number of networking technologies Influential set of
networking standards

• The IEEE defined a set of LAN standards to ensure

network interface and cabling compatibility
 IEEE 802 Standards

IEEE 802 standard

IEEE Higher
Reference Layer
802.1 Model
Logical Link
802.2 Control Data Link
Medium Layer
Access
802.11
802.3

802.4

802.5

Control
Physical Physical
Layer
Layer
• IEEE 802.3 Ethernet LANs
The MAC layer uses CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Detection) technology.

When a computer wants to transmit a frame it:

• Listens for a frame on the cable, if busy, the computer waits

for a random time and attempts transmission again. This is
known as Carrier Sense.
• If the cable is quiet, the computer begins to transmit.
• Two computers could transmit at the same time. To prevent
this happening, the transmitting computer listens to what it is
sending.
 When a Computer Wants to Receive a Frame it:

• Listens to all frames traveling on the cable.

• If the frame address is the same as the computer’s

address or the same as the group address of the
computers of which it is a member, it copies the frame
from the cable.

• Otherwise it just ignores the frame.

Ethernet LAN is a Broadcast Network. It is possible to

• Unicast a frame from one computer to any other computer

connected to the same cable.
• Broadcast a frame from one computer to all other computers
connected to the same cable.
• Multicast a frame from one computer to a subset of the
computers connected to the same cable.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD)

When a station has a frame to transmit:

1) Listen for Data Transmission on Cable (Carrier Sense)
2) When Medium is Quiet (no other station transmitting):
a) Transmit Frame, Listening for Collision
b) If collision is heard, stop transmitting, wait random time,
and transmit again.
IEEE 802.3 Cabling Standards
• The following is a list of the commonly used cables in 802.3 LANs.
IEEE 802.3 Cabling Standards

10Base5
• Connections are made using tap to a thick coaxial cable.
• This results in a poor connection between the computer
and the coaxial cable.

10Base2
• This was the most popular 802.3 cable because it was
cheap and there was a good connection between the
computer and the coaxial cable.
10BaseT
• Star topology is used.
• Stations are connected to a hub via two pairs of twisted cable.
• Currently most popular since it is easy to maintain but is more
expensive.

10BaseF
• Good for high speed connections between buildings.
10Base5 10Base2 10BaseT
802.5 Token Ring LANs
 The MAC sub layer uses Token Ring Technology.
 In a Token Ring LAN, a special bit pattern called the token
circulates around the ring whenever all computers are idle.
When a computer wants to transmit:
• It waits for the token to arrive.
• When it arrives, it removes the token from the ring. There is
only one token so only one computer can transmit at any one
time.
• The computer can now transmit its frame on its output link.
• This frame will now propagate around the ring until it arrives
back at the sender who removes the frame from the ring.
• The sender then regenerates the token and passes it to the next
computer (restarting the above steps).
 IEEE 802.5 Frame Format

• Start of Frame and End Delimiters mark the beginning and

ending of a frame.
• Destination Address, Source Address and Checksum are used
in a similar fashion to IEEE 802.3 Ethernet.
• Comparison of 802.3 ‘Ethernet’ and 802.5 ‘Token Ring’
• Generally they have similar technology with similar
performance.

802.3 Ethernet – Advantages

• Widely used at present. People are experienced in using this
technology.
• Simple Protocol New computers can be added with having to
bring the network down.
• Almost zero delay at low load, there is no need to wait for a
token, you can transmit when ready.
802.3 Ethernet – Disadvantages
• The electronics is more complicated for carrier sense and
collision detection.
• The smallest frame must hold 64 bytes, this means there is a
substantial overhead if you are only transmitting a single
character from your machine.
• Ethernet is non-deterministic system (possibility of repeated
collisions). This means that Ethernet is not suitable for network
applications that require guaranteed delivery times.
• Poor performance at high loads as there can be lots of collisions
reducing the number of messages that are successfully
transmitted.
802.5 Token Ring – Advantages

• Token Ring uses point-to-point connections between ring

interfaces so that the electronic hardware can be fully digital
and simple. There is no need for collision detection.

• Can use any medium twisted pair is cheap and easy to install but
could equally use fiber optic if available.

• Throughput excellent at high loads since there is no possibility

of collisions unlike 802.3.
802.5 Token Ring – Disadvantages

• Computers must wait for the token to arrive, therefore

at load, a computer is delayed before sending.

• Each token ring has a monitor computer, to look after

the ring. If the monitor computer failed, the remaining
computers would have to wait until it is replaced before
being able to continue.
 802.11 Family Members
There are several specifications in the 802.11 family:

802.11
Applies to wireless LANs and provides 1 or 2 Mbps
transmission in the 2.4 GHz band using either frequency
hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or direct sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS).

802.11a
An extension to 802.11 that applies to wireless LANs and
provides up to 54 Mbps in the 5GHz band. 802.11a uses an
orthogonal frequency division multiplexing encoding scheme
rather than FHSS or DSSS.
802.11b
(also referred to as 802.11 High Rate or Wi-Fi) is an
extension to 802.11 that applies to wireless LANs and
provides 11 Mbps transmission (with a fallback to 5.5, 2 and
1 Mbps) in the 2.4 GHz band. 802.11b uses only DSSS.
802.11b was a 1999 ratification to the original 802.11
standard, allowing wireless functionality comparable to
Ethernet.
802.11g
Applies to wireless LANs and provides 20+ Mbps in the 2.4
GHz band.
Thank you