Lesson 1.

Sources and Types of

Error

General Physics 1/2

1
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
Have you encountered measuring the length of
an object only to be confused when the length is
inconsistent upon remeasuring?
Experience has shown
that no measurement
is free from
uncertainty or errors.
There are numerous
factors that can affect
the result of your
measurement.
 Identifying the uncertainty and evaluating its
source is important to correct and to address it.

This is essential especially in science where the

whole field is dependent on measurement.
What are the types of errors?
How can the smallest divisions
in a device affect and contribute
to it?
 Learning Competencies
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:

● Differentiate random errors from systematic

errors (STEM_GP12EU-Ia-3).

● Use the least count concept to estimate errors

associated with single measurements
(STEM_GP12EU-Ia-4).
 Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:

● Differentiate random errors from systematic

errors.

● Identify the different sources of errors.

● Use the least count concept to estimate errors

associated with single measurements.

● Recognize the use of error bars.

 Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:

● Identify techniques in reducing errors in

measurement.
Errors in Measurement

Have you ever committed an error before?

 Errors in Measurement

Nobody’s perfect, and error is something inevitable in life.

 Errors in Measurement

In measurement, error signifies an inevitable

uncertainty that is present in all types of measurement.
Errors in Measurement

It cannot be completely eliminated even if one is

conducting an experiment carefully.
 Errors in Measurement

However, it is still the main goal to reduce the number of

errors and to estimate or quantify the error present.

Two main types of errors

● systematic error
● random error
What is the difference between
a random error and a
systematic error?
 Errors in Measurement

Random Errors
Occur when repeated measurements produce randomly
different results.
 Errors in Measurement

Suppose you measure the diameter (d) of the apple.

d = 2.75 in
 Errors in Measurement

Suppose you measure d for two more times.

d1 = 2.75 in
d2 = 2.73 in
d3 = 2.77 in
 Errors in Measurement

Why are the values inconsistent? Where does the error

come from?

d1 = 2.75 in
d2 = 2.73 in
d3 = 2.77 in
 Errors in Measurement

Random errors are observed after repeated measurements.

d1 = 2.75 in
d2 = 2.73 in
d3 = 2.77 in
 Errors in Measurement

Random errors can be processed statistically using

arithmetic mean and standard deviation.

d1 = 2.75 in
d2 = 2.73 in
d3 = 2.77 in } 2.75 ± 0.2 in
What are examples of random
errors?
 Errors in Measurement

Experimental Noise
Suppose you are asked to launch a ball from a launcher.
 Errors in Measurement

Fundamental Noise
Can you control the behavior of the ball as it is launched
by the launcher?
 Errors in Measurement

Technical Noise
How does minute changes in the angle by which the ball
is launch affect your data?
 Errors in Measurement

Technical Noise
● A good experimenter tries his or her best to reduce
technical noise.

● However, if the fundamental noise is the main reason

why the data is scattered, it is suggested to change the
method of experiment or to change the measuring
device.
 Errors in Measurement

Systematic Error
Error that remains constant or changes in regular fashion
even if measurements are repeated.

It causes the measured values to veer away from the

accepted or predicted value.
 Errors in Measurement

Systematic Error
Suppose you have three apples, and you measured the
diameter of each.
Apple Diameter, d (in)
(observed)
1 2.75
2 2.73
3 2.77
 Errors in Measurement

Systematic Error
Compare the observed value and the true value.

Apple Diameter, d (in) Diameter, d (in)

(observed) (true)
1 2.75 2.77
2 2.73 2.75
3 2.77 2.79
 Errors in Measurement

Systematic Error
The measurements are off by 0.02 inches.

Apple Diameter, d (in) Diameter, d (in)

(observed) (true)
1 2.75 2.77
2 2.73 2.75
3 2.77 2.79
 Errors in Measurement

Systematic Error
All measurements have the same error, hence, the error
is systematic.

Apple Diameter, d (in) Diameter, d (in)

(observed) (true)
1 2.75 2.77
2 2.73 2.75
3 2.77 2.79
 Errors in Measurement

Systematic Error
Where do you think systematic errors arise?

Apple Diameter, d (in) Diameter, d (in)

(observed) (true)
1 2.75 2.77
2 2.73 2.75
3 2.77 2.79
 Errors in Measurement

Sources of Systematic Error

● faulty calibrations of instruments

● poorly maintained instruments

● incorrect reading by the user

Errors in Measurement

Parallax error
Errors in Measurement

Zero Error or Offset Error

0.004 0.000
There is an established Although the reading should
reading ... be zero.
 Errors in Measurement

Mistakes

● Mistakes are similar in nature to systematic errors and

are also difficult to detect.

● There are also no statistical techniques available to

quantify it.
 Errors in Measurement

Mistakes
Fortunately, it can be avoided and can be reduced by
being extra careful in any measurement activity.

writing

3.43 instead of
3.34
How can the least count
concept be used to estimate the
error in a measurement?
 Least Count

Concept of Least Count

● The least count is the smallest division found on an
instrument.

● If you need a more precise measurement, use a

measuring device with finer gradations.

● The instrument limit of error is generally taken to be

the least count or some fraction of the least count.
Least Count

What is the length of the rod using the ruler below?

 Least Count

How do you estimate least count in this scenario? How

do you assess the error in your measurement?
Least Count

What is the length of the rod using the ruler below?

 Least Count

How do you estimate least count in this scenario? How

do you assess the error in your measurement?
Remember

There is no simple rule in estimating the

error of any measurement in an analog
device. There are instances when you
have to estimate it using your best
judgment, especially if the scale
divisions are significantly large.
 Error Bars

Error bars are graphical representations

that indicate the range by which each point
probably lies in the graph.

Measurement A = 15 ± 1 ohms

Measurement B = 25 ± 2 ohms
 Error Bars

Error bars are included to assess proportionality

between variables.

Suppose y (mass, in grams) is directly proportional to x

(distance, in centimeters).
 Error Bars

Plotting y versus x produces a

scatter plot with a linear
trend.

The solid line represents the

best fit line.
 Error Bars

Error bars are added to show

uncertainties in each data set.

The uncertainties in m, in this

case, is negligible compared
to the uncertainties in x.
 Error Bars

Error bars are added to show

uncertainties in each data set.

The uncertainties in m, in this

case, is negligible compared
to the uncertainties in x.
 Error Bars

What can you say about the

errors with respect to the
length of the error bars?
 Error Bars

Do the range of the error bars

reach a portion of the best
fit line?
 Error Bars

What can you say if your data

shows this kind of error?
 Error Bars

In this set of data, what can

you infer about the
relationship between x and
m?
 Error Bars

Crosses appear when uncertainties are present in both x and

y variables.
What are some techniques that
can be used to reduce errors in
measurement?
 Check Your Understanding

Write true if the statement is correct otherwise, write

false.
1. The use of calibrated instruments can reduce random
errors.

2. Limited precision of an instrument can be a source of

systematic error.

3. “Human error” or mistake is not a source of

experimental error.
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● Error is defined as the difference between the

true value and the measured value.
○ Random errors occur when repeated
measurements produce varying results. It
influences the precision of the result.
○ Errors are categorized as systematic if it
remains constant or changes in a regular
fashion even if measurements are repeated.
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● The least count is the smallest division found in a

measuring device.

● Error bars are graphical representations

indicating the range of uncertainty of a specific
value or data.
 Let’s Sum It Up!

● Errors cannot be 100% eliminated in

measurement but there are techniques that can
be used to lessen its occurrence.
Challenge Yourself

How will you describe the measured

value if an error bar is observed
below?
Bibliography

Bauer, W., and Gary D. Westfall. University Physics with Modern Physics. New York: McGraw-Hill,
2013.

Faughn, Jerry S. and Raymond A. Serway. Serway’s College Physics (7th ed). Singapore: Brooks/Cole,
2006.

Knight, Randall Dewey. Physics for Scientists and Engineers: a Strategic Approach with Modern
Physics. Pearson, 2017.

Serway, Raymond A. and John W. Jewett, Jr. Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics (9th
ed). USA: Brooks/Cole, 2014.

Young, Hugh D., Roger A. Freedman, and A. Lewis Ford. Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with
Modern Physics (13th ed). USA: Pearson Education, 2012.