Chapter FOUR

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

Computer Organization & Architecture

(SE 1023)
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

• Introduction

• General Register Organization

• Stack Organization

• Instruction Formats

• Addressing Modes

• Data Transfer and Manipulation

• Program Control

• Reduced Instruction Set Computer

 Introduction

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF CPU

• Storage Components
Registers
Flags

• Execution (Processing) Components

Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU)
Arithmetic calculations, Logical computations, Shifts/Rotates

• Transfer Components
Bus

• Control Components
Control Unit Register
File ALU

Control Unit
REGISTERS

 In Basic Computer, there is only one general purpose register,

the Accumulator (AC)
 In modern CPUs, there are many general purpose registers
 It is advantageous to have many registers
Transfer between registers within the processor are relatively
fast
Going “off the processor” to access memory is much slower

 How many registers will be the best ?

 General Register Organization

GENERAL REGISTER ORGANIZATION

BUS: A, B
Clock Input
(7 lines)
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
Load
(7 lines)
SELA { MUX MUX } SELB
3x8 A bus B bus
decoder

SELD
OPR ALU

Output
 Control

OPERATION OF CONTROL UNIT

The control unit
Directs the information flow through ALU by
- Selecting various Components in the system
- Selecting the Function of ALU
Example: R1  R2 + R3
[1] MUX A selector (SELA): BUS A  R2
[2] MUX B selector (SELB): BUS B  R3
[3] ALU operation selector (OPR): ALU to ADD
[4] Decoder destination selector (SELD): R1  Out Bus
3 3 3 5
Control Word SELA SELB SELD OPR

Encoding of register selection fields

Binary
Code SELA SELB SELD
000 Input Input None
001 R1 R1 R1
010 R2 R2 R2
011 R3 R3 R3
100 R4 R4 R4
101 R5 R5 R5
110 R6 R6 R6
111 R7 R7 R7
 Control

ALU CONTROL
Encoding of ALU operations OPR
Select Operation Symbol
00000 Transfer A TSFA
00001 Increment A INCA
00010 ADD A + B ADD
00101 Subtract A - B SUB
00110 Decrement A DECA
01000 AND A and B AND
01010 OR A and B OR
01100 XOR A and B XOR
01110 Complement A COMA
10000 Shift right A SHRA
11000 Shift left A SHLA

Examples of ALU Microoperations

Symbolic Designation
Microoperation SELA SELB SELD OPR
Control
R1  R2 Word
R3 R2 R3 R1 SUB 010 011 001 00101
R4  R4  R5 R4 R5 R4 OR 100 101 100 01010
R6  R6 + 1 R6 - R6 INCA 110 000 110 00001
R7  R1 R1 - R7 TSFA 001 000 111 00000
Output  R2 R2 - None TSFA 010 000 000 00000
Output  Input Input - None TSFA 000 000 000 00000
R4  shl R4 R4 - R4 SHLA 100 000 100 11000
R5  0 R5 R5 R5 XOR 101 101 101 01100
 Stack Organization

REGISTER STACK ORGANIZATION

Stack
- Very useful feature for nested subroutines, nested interrupt services
- Also efficient for arithmetic expression evaluation
- Storage which can be accessed in LIFO
- Pointer: SP
- Only PUSH and POP operations are applicable
stack Address
Register Stack Flags 63

FULL EMPTY

Stack pointer 4
SP C 3
6 bits B 2
A 1
Push, Pop operations 0
DR
/* Initially, SP = 0, EMPTY = 1, FULL = 0 */

PUSH POP
SP  SP + 1 DR  M[SP]
M[SP]  DR SP  SP  1
If (SP = 0) then (FULL  1) If (SP = 0) then (EMPTY  1)
EMPTY  0 FULL  0
 Stack Organization

MEMORY STACK ORGANIZATION

1000
Memory with Program, Data, Program
PC (instructions)
and Stack Segments
Data
AR (operands)

SP 3000
stack
3997
3998
3999
4000
4001
- A portion of memory is used as a stack with a Stack grows
processor register as a stack pointer In this direction

- PUSH: SP  SP - 1
M[SP]  DR
- POP: DR  M[SP]
SP  SP + 1
- Most computers do not provide hardware to check stack overflow (full

stack) or underflow (empty stack)  must be done in software

 Stack Organization

REVERSE POLISH NOTATION

• Arithmetic Expressions: A + B
A+B Infix notation
+AB Prefix or Polish notation
AB+ Postfix or reverse Polish notation
- The reverse Polish notation is very suitable for stack
manipulation
• Evaluation of Arithmetic Expressions
Any arithmetic expression can be expressed in parenthesis-free
Polish notation, including reverse Polish notation

(3 * 4) + (5 * 6)  34*56*+

6
4 5 5 30
3 3 12 12 12 12 42
3 4 * 5 6 * +
PROCESSOR ORGANIZATION
 In general, most processors are organized in one of 3 ways

 Single register (Accumulator) organization

 Basic Computer is a good example
 Accumulator is the only general purpose register

 General register organization

 Used by most modern computer processors
 Any of the registers can be used as the source or destination for
computer operations

 Stack organization
 All operations are done using the hardware stack
 For example, an OR instruction will pop the two top elements from
the stack, do a logical OR on them, and push the result on the stack
 Instruction Format

INSTRUCTION FORMAT
• Instruction Fields
OP-code field - specifies the operation to be performed
Address field - designates memory address(es) or a processor register(s)
Mode field - determines how the address field is to be interpreted (to
get effective address or the operand)

• The number of address fields in the instruction format

depends on the internal organization of CPU

• The three most common CPU organizations:

Single accumulator organization:
ADD X /* AC  AC + M[X] */
General register organization:
ADD R1, R2, R3 /* R1  R2 + R3 */
ADD R1, R2 /* R1  R1 + R2 */
MOV R1, R2 /* R1  R2 */
ADD R1, X /* R1  R1 + M[X] */
Stack organization:
PUSH X /* TOS  M[X] */
ADD
 Instruction Format

THREE, AND TWO-ADDRESS INSTRUCTIONS

• Three-Address Instructions

Program to evaluate X = (A + B) * (C + D) :
ADD R1, A, B /* R1  M[A] + M[B] */
ADD R2, C, D /* R2  M[C] + M[D] */
MUL X, R1, R2 /* M[X]  R1 * R2 */
- Results in short programs (Advantage)
- Instruction becomes long (many bits)

• Two-Address Instructions

Program to evaluate X = (A + B) * (C + D) :

MOV R1, A /* R1  M[A] */

ADD R1, B /* R1  R1 + M[B] */
MOV R2, C /* R2  M[C] */
ADD R2, D /* R2  R2 + M[D] */
MUL R1, R2 /* R1  R1 * R2 */
MOV X, R1 /* M[X]  R1 */
 Instruction Format

ONE, AND ZERO-ADDRESS INSTRUCTIONS

• One-Address Instructions
- Use an implied AC register for all data manipulation
- Program to evaluate X = (A + B) * (C + D) :
LOAD A /* AC  M[A] */
ADD B /* AC  AC + M[B] */
STORE T /* M[T]  AC */
LOAD C /* AC  M[C] */
ADD D /* AC  AC + M[D] */
MUL T /* AC  AC * M[T] */
STORE X /* M[X]  AC */
• Zero-Address Instructions
- Can be found in a stack-organized computer
- Program to evaluate X = (A + B) * (C + D) :
PUSH A /* TOS  A */
PUSH B /* TOS  B */
ADD /* TOS  (A + B) */
PUSH C /* TOS  C */
PUSH D /* TOS  D */
ADD /* TOS  (C + D) */
MUL /* TOS  (C + D) * (A + B) */
POP X /* M[X]  TOS */
 Addressing Modes

ADDRESSING MODES

• Addressing Modes
* Specifies a rule for interpreting or modifying the
address field of the instruction (before the operand
is actually referenced)
* Variety of addressing modes
- to give programming flexibility to the user
- to use the bits in the address field of the
instruction efficiently
 Addressing Modes

TYPES OF ADDRESSING MODES

• Implied Mode
Address of the operands are specified implicitly
in the definition of the instruction
- No need to specify address in the instruction
- EA = AC, or EA = Stack[SP]
- Examples from Basic Computer
CLA, CME, INP

• Immediate Mode
Instead of specifying the address of the operand,
operand itself is specified
- No need to specify address in the instruction
- However, operand itself needs to be specified
- Sometimes, require more bits than the address
- Fast to acquire an operand
 Addressing Modes

TYPES OF ADDRESSING MODES

• Register Mode
Address specified in the instruction is the register address
- Designated operand need to be in a register
- Shorter address than the memory address
- Saving address field in the instruction
- Faster to acquire an operand than the memory addressing
- EA = IR(R) (IR(R): Register field of IR)

• Register Indirect Mode

Instruction specifies a register which contains
the memory address of the operand
- Saving instruction bits since register address
is shorter than the memory address
- Slower to acquire an operand than both the
register addressing or memory addressing
- EA = [IR(R)] ([x]: Content of x)

• Autoincrement or Autodecrement Mode

- When the address in the register is used to access memory, the
value in the register is incremented or decremented by 1
automatically
 Addressing Modes

TYPES OF ADDRESSING MODES

• Direct Address Mode

Instruction specifies the memory address which
can be used directly to access the memory
- Faster than the other memory addressing modes
- Too many bits are needed to specify the address
for a large physical memory space
- EA = IR(addr) (IR(addr): address field of IR)

• Indirect Addressing Mode

The address field of an instruction specifies the address of a memory
location that contains the address of the operand
- When the abbreviated address is used large physical memory can be
addressed with a relatively small number of bits
- Slow to acquire an operand because of an additional memory access
- EA = M[IR(address)]
 Addressing Modes

TYPES OF ADDRESSING MODES

• Relative Addressing Modes

The Address fields of an instruction specifies the part of the address
(abbreviated address) which can be used along with a
designated register to calculate the address of the operand
- Address field of the instruction is short
- Large physical memory can be accessed with a small number of
address bits
- EA = f(IR(address), R), R is sometimes implied
3 different Relative Addressing Modes depending on R;
* PC Relative Addressing Mode (R = PC)
- EA = PC + IR(address)
* Indexed Addressing Mode (R = IX, where IX: Index Register)
- EA = IX + IR(address)
* Base Register Addressing Mode
(R = BAR, where BAR: Base Address Register)
- EA = BAR + IR(address)
 Addressing Modes

ADDRESSING MODES - EXAMPLES -

Address Memory
200 Load to AC Mode
PC = 200 201 Address = 500
202 Next instruction
R1 = 400

399 450
RX= 100
400 700
401 850
AC
500 800

600 900

Addressing Effective Content 702 325

Mode Address of AC
Direct address 500 /* AC  (500) */ 800
Immediate operand - /* AC  500 */ 500 800 300
Indirect address 800 /* AC  ((500)) */ 300
Relative address 702 /* AC  (PC+500) */ 325
Indexed address 600 /* AC  (RX+500) */ 900
Register - /* AC  R1 */ 400
Register indirect 400 /* AC  (R1) */ 700
Autoincrement 400 /* AC  (R1)+ */ 850
Autodecrement 399 /* AC  -(R) */ 450
 Data Transfer and Manipulation

DATA TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS

• Typical Data Transfer Instructions
Name Mnemonic
Load LD
Store ST
Move MOV
Exchange XCH
Input IN
Output OUT
Push PUSH
Pop POP
• Data Transfer Instructions with Different Addressing Modes
Assembly
Mode Convention Register Transfer
Direct address LD ADR AC M[ADR]
Indirect address LD @ADR AC  M[M[ADR]]
Relative address LD $ADR AC  M[PC + ADR]
Immediate operand LD #NBR AC  NBR
Index addressing LD ADR(X) AC  M[ADR +
XR]
Register LD R1 AC  R1
Register indirect LD (R1) AC  M[R1]
Autoincrement LD (R1)+ AC  M[R1], R1  R1 + 1
Autodecrement LD -(R1) R1  R1 - 1, AC  M[R1]
 Data Transfer and Manipulation

DATA MANIPULATION INSTRUCTIONS

• Three Basic Types: Arithmetic instructions
Logical and bit manipulation instructions
Shift instructions
• Arithmetic Instructions
Name Mnemonic
Increment INC
Decrement DEC
Add ADD
Subtract SUB
Multiply MUL
Divide DIV
Add with Carry ADDC
Subtract with Borrow SUBB
Negate(2’s Complement) NEG

• Logical and Bit Manipulation Instructions • Shift Instructions

Name Mnemonic Name Mnemonic
Clear CLR Logical shift right SHR
Complement COM Logical shift left SHL
AND AND Arithmetic shift right SHRA
OR OR Arithmetic shift left SHLA
Exclusive-OR XOR Rotate right ROR
Clear carry CLRC Rotate left ROL
Set carry SETC Rotate right thru carry
Complement carry COMC RORC
Enable interrupt EI Rotate left thru carry ROLC
Disable interrupt DI
FLAG, PROCESSOR STATUS WORD

 In Basic Computer, the processor had several (status) flags – 1 bit value that indicated
various information about the processor’s state – E, FGI, FGO, I, IEN, R
 In some processors, flags like these are often combined into a register – the processor
status register (PSR); sometimes called a processor status word (PSW)
 Common flags in PSW are
 C (Carry): Set to 1 if the carry out of the ALU is 1
 S (Sign): The MSB bit of the ALU’s output
 Z (Zero): Set to 1 if the ALU’s output is all 0’s
 V (Overflow): Set to 1 if there is an overflow
Status Flag Circuit
A B
8 8
c7
8-bit ALU
c8
F7 - F0
V Z S C
F7
Check for 8
zero output
F
 Program Control

PROGRAM CONTROL INSTRUCTIONS

+1
In-Line Sequencing (Next instruction is fetched
from the next adjacent location in the memory)
PC
Address from other source; Current Instruction,
Stack, etc; Branch, Conditional Branch,
Subroutine, etc
• Program Control Instructions
Name Mnemonic
Branch BR
Jump JMP
Skip SKP
Call CALL
Return RTN
Compare(by  ) CMP
Test(by AND) TST
* CMP and TST instructions do not retain their
results of operations (  and AND, respectively).
They only set or clear certain Flags.
 Program Control

CONDITIONAL BRANCH INSTRUCTIONS

Mnemonic Branch condition Tested condition

BZ Branch if zero Z=1
BNZ Branch if not zero Z=0
BC Branch if carry C=1
BNC Branch if no carry C=0
BP Branch if plus S=0
BM Branch if minus S=1
BV Branch if overflow V=1
BNV Branch if no overflowV = 0
Unsigned compare conditions (A - B)
BHI Branch if higher A>B
BHE Branch if higher or equal AB
BLO Branch if lower A<B
BLOE Branch if lower or equal AB
BE Branch if equal A=B
BNE Branch if not equal A  B
Signed compare conditions (A - B)
BGT Branch if greater than A>B
BGE Branch if greater or equal AB
BLT Branch if less than A < B
BLE Branch if less or equal AB
BE Branch if equal A=B
BNE Branch if not equal A  B
 Program Control

SUBROUTINE CALL AND RETURN

• Subroutine Call Call subroutine
Jump to subroutine
Branch to subroutine
Branch and save return address
• Two Most Important Operations are Implied;

* Branch to the beginning of the Subroutine

- Same as the Branch or Conditional Branch

* Save the Return Address to get the address

of the location in the Calling Program upon
exit from the Subroutine

• Locations for storing Return Address CALL

SP  SP - 1
• Fixed Location in the subroutine (Memory) M[SP]  PC
• Fixed Location in memory PC  EA
• In a processor Register
• In memory stack RTN
- most efficient way PC  M[SP]
SP  SP + 1
 Program Control

PROGRAM INTERRUPT
Types of Interrupts
External interrupts
External Interrupts initiated from the outside of CPU and Memory
- I/O Device → Data transfer request or Data transfer complete
- Timing Device → Timeout
- Power Failure
- Operator

Internal interrupts (traps)

Internal Interrupts are caused by the currently running program
- Register, Stack Overflow
- Divide by zero
- OP-code Violation
- Protection Violation

Software Interrupts
Both External and Internal Interrupts are initiated by the computer HW.
Software Interrupts are initiated by the executing an instruction.
- Supervisor Call → Switching from a user mode to the supervisor mode
→ Allows to execute a certain class of operations
which are not
allowed in the user mode
 Program Control

INTERRUPT PROCEDURE
Interrupt Procedure and Subroutine Call
- The interrupt is usually initiated by an internal or
an external signal rather than from the execution of
an instruction (except for the software interrupt)
- The address of the interrupt service program is
determined by the hardware rather than from the
address field of an instruction
- An interrupt procedure usually stores all the
information necessary to define the state of CPU
rather than storing only the PC.
The state of the CPU is determined from;
Content of the PC
Content of all processor registers
Content of status bits
Many ways of saving the CPU state
depending on the CPU architectures
COMPLEX INSTRUCTION SET COMPUTER (CISC)

 Continuing growth in semiconductor memory and

microprogramming
 A much richer and complicated instruction sets
and addressing modes
 Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC)
 Richer instruction sets would simplify compilers
 Richer instruction sets would move as much functions to the
hardware as possible
 Richer instruction sets would improve architecture quality
 One goal for CISC machines was to have a machine language
instruction to match each high-level language statement type
VARIABLE LENGTH INSTRUCTIONS
 The large number of instructions means a greater number of bits to specify
them
 The large number of instructions and addressing modes led CISC machines to
have variable length instruction formats
 In order to manage this large number of opcodes efficiently, they were encoded
with different lengths:
 More frequently used instructions were encoded using short opcodes.
 Less frequently used ones were assigned longer opcodes.

 Also, multiple operand instructions could specify different addressing modes

for each operand
 For example,
 Operand 1 could be a directly addressed register,
 Operand 2 could be an indirectly addressed memory location,
 Operand 3 (the destination) could be an indirectly addressed register.

 All of this led to the need to have different length instructions in different
situations, depending on the opcode and operands used
VARIABLE LENGTH INSTRUCTIONS
 For example, an instruction that only specifies register operands may only
be two bytes in length
 One byte to specify the instruction and addressing mode
 One byte to specify the source and destination registers.

 An instruction that specifies memory addresses for operands may need five
bytes
 One byte to specify the instruction and addressing mode
 Two bytes to specify each memory address
 Maybe more if there’s a large amount of memory.

 Variable length instructions greatly complicate the fetch and decode

problem for a processor

 The circuitry to recognize the various instructions and to properly fetch the
required number of bytes for operands is very complex
COMPLEX INSTRUCTION SET COMPUTER
 Another characteristic of CISC computers is that they have instructions that act directly
on memory addresses
 For example,
ADD L1, L2, L3
that takes the contents of M[L1] adds it to the contents of M[L2] and stores the result
in location M[L3]
 An instruction like this takes three memory access cycles to execute

 The problems with CISC computers are

 The complexity of the design may slow down the processor,

 The complexity of the design may result in costly errors in the processor design and
implementation,
 Many of the instructions and addressing modes are used rarely, if ever
REDUCED INSTRUCTION SET COMPUTERS (RISC)
 In the late ‘70s and early ‘80s there was a reaction to the shortcomings of
the CISC style of processors
 Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC) were proposed as an alternative
 The underlying idea behind RISC processors is to simplify the instruction
set and reduce instruction execution time
 RISC processors often feature:
 Few instructions
 Few addressing modes
 Only load and store instructions access memory
 All other operations are done using on-processor registers
 Fixed length instructions
 Single cycle execution of instructions
 The control unit is hardwired, not microprogrammed
REDUCED INSTRUCTION SET COMPUTERS
 Since all but the load and store instructions use only registers for operands,
only a few addressing modes are needed
 By having all instructions the same length, reading them in is easy and fast
 The fetch and decode stages are simple, looking much more like Mano’s
Basic Computer than a CISC machine
 The instruction and address formats are designed to be easy to decode
 Unlike the variable length CISC instructions, the opcode and register fields of
RISC instructions can be decoded simultaneously
 The control logic of a RISC processor is designed to be simple and fast
 The control logic is simple because of the small number of instructions and
the simple addressing modes
 The control logic is hardwired, rather than microprogrammed, because
hardwired control is faster
 RISC

ARCHITECTURAL METRIC
AB+C
BA+C
DD -B
• Register-to-register (Reuse of operands)
8 4 16
Load rB B
Load rC C
Add rA rB rC I = 228b
Store rA A
Add rB rA rC D = 192b
Store rB B M = 420b
Load rD D
Sub rD rD rB
Store rD D

• Register-to-register (Compiler allocates operands in registers)

8 4 4 4
Add rA rB rC I = 60b
Add rB rA rC D = 0b
Sub rD rD rB M = 60b
• Memory-to-memory
8 16 16 16
Add B C A I = 168b
Add A C B D = 288b
Sub B D D M = 456b
REGISTERS

By simplifying the instructions and addressing modes,

there is space available on the chip or board of a RISC
CPU for more circuits than with a CISC processor
This extra capacity is used to
Pipeline instruction execution to speed up
instruction execution
Add a large number of registers to the CPU
PIPELINING

 A very important feature of many RISC processors is the

ability to execute an instruction each clock cycle
 This may seem nonsensical, since it takes at least once clock
cycle each to fetch, decode and execute an instruction.
 It is however possible, because of a technique known as
pipelining
 Pipelining is the use of the processor to work on different
phases of multiple instructions in parallel
PIPELINING
 For instance, at one time, a pipelined processor may be
Executing instruction it
Decoding instruction it+1
Fetching instruction it+2 from memory
 So, if we’re running three instructions at once, and it takes an
average instruction three cycles to run, the CPU is executing an
average of an instruction a clock cycle
 As we’ll see when we cover it in depth, there are complications
For example, what happens to the pipeline when the
processor branches

 However, pipelined execution is an integral part of all modern

processors, and plays an important role
REGISTERS
 By having a large number of general purpose registers, a
processor can minimize the number of times it needs to access
memory to load or store a value
 This results in a significant speed up, since memory accesses
are much slower than register accesses
 Register accesses are fast, since they just use the bus on the
CPU itself, and any transfer can be done in one clock cycle
 To go off-processor to memory requires using the much slower
memory (or system) bus
 It may take many clock cycles to read or write to memory
across the memory bus
The memory bus hardware is usually slower than the
processor
There may even be competition for access to the memory
bus by other devices in the computer (e.g. disk drives)
 So, for this reason alone, a RISC processor may have an
advantage over a comparable CISC processor, since it only
needs to access memory
for its instructions, and
 RISC

CHARACTERISTICS OF RISC
• RISC Characteristics
- Relatively few instructions
- Relatively few addressing modes
- Memory access limited to load and store instructions
- All operations done within the registers of the CPU
- Fixed-length, easily decoded instruction format
- Single-cycle instruction format
- Hardwired rather than microprogrammed control

• Advantages of RISC
- VLSI Realization
- Computing Speed
- Design Costs and Reliability
- High Level Language Support
 RISC

ADVANTAGES OF RISC
• VLSI Realization Example:
RISC I: 6%
Control area is considerably reduced RISC II: 10%
MC68020: 68%
general CISCs: ~50%

 RISC chips allow a large number of registers on the chip

- Enhancement of performance and HLL support
- Higher regularization factor and lower VLSI design cost

• Computing Speed
- Simpler, smaller control unit  faster
- Simpler instruction set; addressing modes; instruction format
 faster decoding
- Register operation  faster than memory operation
- Register window  enhances the overall speed of execution
- Identical instruction length, One cycle instruction execution
 suitable for pipelining  faster
 RISC

ADVANTAGES OF RISC
• Design Costs and Reliability
- Shorter time to design
 reduction in the overall design cost and
reduces the problem that the end product will
be obsolete by the time the design is completed
- Simpler, smaller control unit
 higher reliability
- Simple instruction format (of fixed length)
 ease of virtual memory management

• High Level Language Support

- A single choice of instruction
 shorter, simpler compiler
- A large number of CPU registers
 more efficient code
- Register window
 Direct support of HLL
- Reduced burden on compiler writer