CHAPTER ONE

FUNDUMENTAL OF MACHINIG

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 Chapter Outline

Introduction
Material Removal process
Generation motion of machine tools
The Mechanics of Chip Formation
The Types of Chips Produced In Metal Cutting
The Mechanics of Oblique Cutting
Cutting Forces and Power
Temperatures in Cutting

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1.1. INTRODUCTION

Manufacturing process is a part of the production process

which is directly concerned with the change of form or
dimensions of the part being produced.
 It does not include the transportation, handling or storage
of parts, as they are not directly concerned with the
changes into the form or dimensions of the part produced.
Parts can be manufactured by casting, forming and shaping,
processes
They often require further operation which is called
machining, before the product is ready for use .
Manufacturing Processes are generally classified in to two:
• Non- Chip Removal Process
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• Chip Removal Process 3
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 Non-Chip removal process: e.g. Casting, Forging,
Forming, Welding, Sintering, Powder Metallurgy etc.
Machining is a chip removal process and modification of
the surfaces of a work piece to develop the desired
shape and size.
Machining involves operations such as turning, boring,
drilling, milling, planning, shaping, broaching, and
grinding, ultrasonic machining; chemical, electrical,
electrochemical machining; and high-energy-beam
machining.
Thus, machining involve secondary and finishing
operations.
Lot of material is wasted as scrap in the secondary or
machining process.
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 Another classification of machining processes:
• Cutting
• Abrasive processes
• Advanced machining processes
Cutting processes remove material from the
surface of a work piece by producing chips
Common cutting processes:
• Turning
• Cutting off
• Slab milling
• End milling etc.
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Machining operations is a system consisting of the
• Work piece
• Cutting tool
• Machine tool
• Production personnel

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Machining in the Manufacturing Sequence
Generally performed after other manufacturing
processes, such as casting, forging, and bar
drawing
• Other processes create the general shape of
the starting work part.
• Machining provides the final shape,
dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot create.

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 Roughing vs. Finishing Cuts
In production, several roughing cuts are usually
taken on a part, followed by one or two finishing
cuts
• Roughing - removes large amounts of material
from starting work part
• Some material remains for finish cutting
• High feeds and depths, low speeds
• Finishing - completes part geometry
• Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
• Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
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Why Machining is Important
Variety of work materials can be machined
• Most frequently applied to metals
Variety of part shapes and special geometry
features possible, such as:
• Screw threads
• Accurate round holes
• Very straight edges and surfaces
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish

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Disadvantages with Machining
Wasteful of material
• Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation.
Time consuming
• A machining operation generally takes more time
to shape a given part than alternative shaping
processes, such as casting, powder metallurgy,
or forming.

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 1.2. MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESS
A family of shaping operations, the common
feature of which is removal of material from a
starting work part so the remaining part has the
desired shape.
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work
material to form a chip.
As chip is removed, a new surface is exposed.

Figure 21.2 ‑ (a) A cross‑sectional

view of the machining process, (b)
tool with negative rake angle;
compare with positive rake angle in
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(a)
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Material removal processes are Classified as:
a. Conventional Machining Process: material removal
by a sharp cutting tool. E.g.
• Turning and Related Operations
• Drilling and Related Operation
• Milling
• Shaping
• Planning
• Slotting
• Broaching
• Other Machining Operation

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b. Abrasive Process: material removal by hard,
abrasive particles.
e.g.
• Grinding Operation
• Other Abrasive Operation
c. Advanced Machining Process: various energy
forms other than sharp cutting tool to remove
material.
e.g.
• Mechanical Energy Process
• Electromechanical Machining
• Thermal Energy Process
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1.3. GENERATION MOTION OF MACHINE TOOLS
A machine tool is a power driven metal cutting
machine which assists in managing the needed
relative motion between cutting tool and the job.
Functions of machine tool in machining:
• Holds work part
• Positions the tool relative to the work
• Provides power at speed, feed, and depth that
have been set.
The term is also applied to machines that perform
metal forming operation.
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Types of Generation Motion of Cutting tool and Work Piece
for Different Machine Tools
No Type of Machine Cutting Tool Work Piece Type of Cutting
. Tool
1 Lathe Tool Translates Rotates Single Point Cutter
2 Drilling Machine Rotates Stationary Multi-Teeth
Cutter
3 Milling Machine Rotates Translates Multi-Teeth
Cutter
4 Broaching Rotates or Translates or Multi-Teeth
Machine Translates Stationary Cutter
5 Shaper Translates Stationary Single Point Cutter
6 Planner Stationary Translates Single Point Cutter
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 Here are variety of operations that can be
performed on Machine tools:
Turning operation: It is an operation by which a
cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to
remove material from a rotating work pieces to
generate a cylindrical shape. This is shown in the
fig. (a), below that the speed motion in turning
is provided by the rotating work part, and the
feed motion is achieved by the cutting tool
moving slowly in a direction parallel to the axis
of rotation of the work pieces.

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  Milling operation: milling operation is an operation in
which a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is
moving slowly relative to the material to generate a
plane or a straight surface. The direction of the
feed motion is perpendicular to the tool’s axis of
rotation. The speed motion is provided by the
rotating milling cutter. The two basic forms of milling
operation are peripheral milling and face milling as
shown in fig. (c) and (d).
Drilling operation: This is an operation used to
create a round hole. It is accomplished by a rotating
tool that typically has two cutting edges. The tool is
fed in a direction parallel to its axis of rotation in to
the work part to form the round hole as in fig.2(b).
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 Figure 1.5The three most common types of machining
processes: (a)turning, (b) drilling,(c) peripheral milling and (d)
face milling
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Here are variety of turning operations that can
be performed on a lathe Tool:
• Facing: In Facing operations the tool is fed
radially in to the rotating work on one end to
create a flat surface.
• Taper Turning: Instead of feeding the tool
parallel to the axis of rotation of the work,
the tool is fed at an angle, thus creating a
tapered cylinder or conical shape

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 • Contour Turning: Instead of feeding the tool along
a straight line parallel to the axis of rotation as
in turning, the tool follows a contour that is other
than straight, thus creating a contoured form in
the turned part.
• Form Turning: In this operation, some times called
forming, the tool has a shape that is imparted to
the work by plunging the tool radially in to the
work.
• Cutoff: The tool is fed radially into the rotating
work at some location along its length to cut off
the end of the part. This operation is sometimes
called Parting.
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 Threading: A pointed tool is fed linearly across the out side
surface of the rotating work part in a direction parallel to
the axis of the rotation at a large effective feed rate,
thus creating threads in the cylinder.
Boring: A single point tool is fed linearly, parallel to the
axis of rotation, on the inside diameter of an existing hole
in the part.
Drilling: Drilling can be preformed on a lathe by feeding the
drill in to the rotating work along its axis.
Knurling: This is not a machining operation because it does
not involve cutting of material. Instead it is a metal
forming operation used to produce a regular cross- hatched
pattern in the work surface.
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1.4. THE MECHANICS OF CHIP FORMATION
A. Cutting Conditions of Machining
Three dimensions of a machining process:
• Cutting speed v – primary motion.
• Feed f – secondary motion.
• Depth of cut d – penetration of tool below
original work surface.
For certain operations, material removal rate can
be computed as:
RMR = vfd
Where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of
cut.
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In metal cutting operation, the position of cutting
edge of the cutting tool is important.

Based on the position of cutting edge, metal cutting

operation is classified as:
Orthogonal cutting and
Oblique cutting

Fig. Metal cutting operations

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 B. Mechanics of Oblique Cutting
The cutting tool has a rake angle of α , and a relief
(clearance) angle.
Microscopic examination of chips obtained in actual machining
operations has revealed that they are produced by shearing
(see Fig. 6.1a) – similar to the movement in a deck of cards
sliding against each other.
 Shearing takes place along a well-defined plane called shear
plane at an angle φ called the shear angle.
The dimension d in the figure is highly exaggerated to show
the mechanism involved. This dimension is only on the order
of 0.01 to 0.001 mm.
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Majority of machining operations involves tool shapes that
are 3-D, thus the cutting is oblique.
 Figure 1.8a shows the basic difference between oblique
and orthogonal cutting.
 Whereas in orthogonal cutting, the chip slide directly
up the face of the tool, in oblique cutting, the chip is
helical and at an angle I, called the inclination angle
(Fig. 1.8b).
Chip movement is like snow from snowplow blade:
sideways, i.e. helical chip don’t interfere with cutting
zone, unlike orthogonal cutting.

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Angle an , the normal rake angle, is a basic geometric
property of the tool. This is the angle between the
normal oz to the work piece surface and the line oa on
the tool face.
The work piece material approaches the tool at a
velocity V and leaves the surface (as a chip) with a
velocity Vc .
The effective rake angle ae is calculated in the plane of
these two velocities.
Assuming that the chip flow angle ac is equal to the
inclination angle i, the effective rake angle a e is

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Note i, an can be measured directly
to find ae
As i increases, the effective rake
angle increases and the chip becomes
thinner and longer, and hence the
cutting force decrease. The influence
of the inclination angle on chip shape
is shown in fig. 1.10c.
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Figure 1.6 (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation by
shearing. (b) Velocity diagram showing angular relationships among the three speeds
in the cutting zone.
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 Cutting ratio. The chip thickness tc can be
determined by knowing the depth of the cut to ,
and α and φ . The ratio of to / tc is known as the
cutting ratio, r, related to the two angles by:

 The chip thickness is always greater than the

depth of cut; therefore, the value of r is always
less than 1.
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 The reciprocal of r is known as the chip
compression ratio and is a measure of how thick
the chip has become compared to the depth of
cut. Thus the chip compression ratio is always
greater than 1.
The depth of the cut (feed) is referred to as
undeformed chip thickness. To visualize this
situation, assume that the work piece is a thin-
walled tube the width of the cut is the same as
the thickness of the tube. (See Fig. 1.7).

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 See Fig. 1.7. thin-walled tube

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Making use of cutting ratio in evaluating cutting
conditions:
• depth of cut, to: machine setting (i.e. indep.
variable)
• chip thickness, tc can be measured using micrometer
• cutting ratio, r can then easily be calculated
• rake angle,  is also known for cutting operation
 It is function of tool and work piece geometry
• Cutting ratio and rake angle can be used to find
shear angle, .

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Shear strain. Referring to Fig. 1.6a, we can
express the shear strain, γ , that the material
undergoes as:

 Note that large shear strains are associated with low shear
angles or low or negative rake angles.
 Shear strains of 5 or higher have been observed in actual
cutting operations.
 Deformation in cutting generally takes place within a very
narrow deformation zone; that is, the dimension d = OC in
Fig. 1.6a is very small; therefore, the rate at which
shearing takes place is high.
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 The shear angle has great significance in the
mechanics of cutting operations. It influences:
force and power requirements, chip thickness,
and temperature.
Consequently, much attention has been focused
on determining the relationships between the
shear angle and work piece material properties
and cutting process variables.
One of the earliest analyses was based on the
assumption that the shear angle adjusts itself to
minimize the cutting force, or that the shear
plane is a plane of maximum shear stress. The
analysis yielded the expression
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  Where β is the friction angle and is related to
the coefficient of friction, μ, at the tool – chip
interface (rake face) by the expression:

 Velocities in the cutting zone: Since chip thickness

is greater than the depth of cut, the velocity of
the chip, Vc, has to be lower than the cutting
speed, V.
 Since mass continuity has to be maintained, we
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 A velocity diagram constructed (Fig. 1.6b), from
trigonometry (law of sines) we obtain the equation:

where Vs is the velocity at which shearing takes

place in the shear plane. Note also that:

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1.5. THE TYPES OF CHIPS PRODUCED IN METAL
CUTTING
In a metal cutting operation, chips are separated
from the work piece to impart the required size and
shape to the work piece. The type of chips formed
is basically a function of the work material and
cutting conditions. The chips that are formed during
metal cutting operations can be classified into three
types:
Discontinuous chips
Continuous chips
Continuous chips with built up edge
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A discontinuous chip: comes off as small
chunks or particles. When we get this chip it
may indicate;
Brittle work material
Small or negative rake angles
Coarse feeds and low speeds
A continuous chip: looks like a long ribbon with a
smooth shining surface. This chip type may indicate;
 Ductile work materials
 Large positive rake angles
 Fine feeds and high speeds
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Continuous chips with a built up edge: still look like a long
ribbon, but the surface is no longer smooth and shining.
The following circumstances are the some of the common
causes for the formation of build- up edge:
Low cutting speeds ( ~0.5 m/s)
Small or Negative rake angles
Work materials like mild steel, aluminum, cast iron,
etc.
In metal cutting, the area of contact between the
tool and the chip experiences very high cutting forces
and temperatures. The combination of these factors
leads to high values of the coefficient of friction to
make the work piece material adheres to the tool’s
rake face. This phenomenon isproduction
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built-up edge.
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The built-up edge tends to grow until it reaches a
critical size (~0.3 mm) and then passes off with the
chip, leaving small fragments on the machining
surface results a rough machined surface.
An appropriate increase in the rake angle could
significantly reduce the normal force on the rake
face and subsequently reduce the coefficient of
friction, thus indirectly prolonging the tool’s life.

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Figure.1.9 The type of chip changes with cutting speed. When cutting mild
steel, the chip is discontinuous at low cutting velocity (a), forms with a built-
up edge at about 0.5 m/s (b), and is continuous with well developed secondary
shear
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1.6. Cutting Forces and Power
Knowledge of cutting forces and power involved in
machining is important for the following reasons:
1. Data on cutting forces is essential so that (a)
machine tools can be properly designed to minimize
distortion of the machine components, maintain
dimensional accuracy of the part, and help select
appropriate tool holders and work holding devices,
and (b) the work piece is capable of withstanding
these forces without excessive distortion.
2. Power requirement must be known in order to
enable the selection of a machine tool with
adequate electric power.
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The cutting force, Fc , acts in the direction of the
cutting speed, V, and supplies the energy required for
cutting.
The thrust force, Ft , acts in a direction normal to
the cutting velocity, that is, perpendicular to the work
piece.
These two forces produce the resultant force, R. See
Figure below.
The resultant force can be resolved into two
components on the tool face: a friction force, F, along
the tool-chip interface, and a normal force, N,
perpendicular to it.
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Figure 1.10 (a) Forces acting on a cutting tool during two-dimensional cutting. Note that
the resultant force, R, must be collinear to balance the forces. (b) Force circle to
determine
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• It can also be shown that ( is friction angle)
F  R sin   N  R cos 

• Resultant force, R is balanced by an equal and

opposite force along the shear plane
• It is resolved into shear force, Fs and normal force,
Fn F s  F c cos   F t sin 
• Thus, F n  Fc sin   F t cos 

• The magnitude of coefficient of friction,  is

F Ft  Fc tan 
  
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N Fc  Ft tan  51
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Thrust Force:
The tool holder, work-holding devices, and machine tool
must be stiff to support thrust force with minimal
deflections
• If Ft is too high ⇒ tool will be pushed away from work
piece.
• this will reduce depth of cut and dimensional accuracy.
The effect of rakeFt angle  friction
R sinand   or angle
Ft  Fon the
tan   
direction
of thrust force is:
c

Magnitude of the cutting force, Fc is always positive as the

force that supplies the work is required in cutting.
However, Ft can be +ve or –ve; i.e. Ft can be upward with
a) high rake angle, b) low tool-chip
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engineering c) both.
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Power
The power input in cutting is
Power= FcV
Power is dissipated in
• shear plane/zone (due to energy required to shear
material)
• Rake face (due to tool-chip interface friction)
Power dissipated in shearing is
Power for shearing  FsVs
Denoting the width of cut as w, (i.e. area of cut: wt0),
the specific energy Ffor
V
shearing, is
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us  s s
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The power dissipated in friction is
Power for friction  FVc

The specific energy for friction, uf is

FVc Fr
uf  
wt0V wt0
Total specific energy, ut is
ut  u s  u f

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Prediction of forces is based largely on experimental data
(right).
Wide ranges of values is due to differences in material
strengths.
Sharpness of the tool tip also influences forces and power.
Duller tools require higher forces and power.

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Measuring Cutting Forces and Power
Cutting forces can be measured using a force
transducer, a dynamometer or a load cell mounted on
the cutting-tool holder
It is also possible to calculate the cutting force
from the power consumption during cutting (provided
mechanical efficiency of the tool can be determined)
The specific energy in cutting can be used to
calculate cutting forces
 % of total energy to overcome friction =

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EXAMPLE 21.1
Relative Energies in Cutting
In an orthogonal cutting operation, to=0.13 mm,
V=120 m/min, α=10° and the width of cut 6 mm. It
is observed that tc=0.23 mm, Fc=500 N and Ft=200
N. Calculate the percentage of the total energy that
goes into overcoming friction at the tool–chip
interface.

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Solution
Relative Energies in Cutting
The percentage of the energy can be expressed as
Friction Energy FVc Fr
 
Total Energy FcV Fc
where t0 0.13
r   0.565
tc 0.23

We have F  R sin  , F  R cos    and

c

R F
t
2
 Fc2   200 2  500 2  539 N
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 Solution
Relative Energies in Cutting
Thus, 500  539 cos  10    32
F  539 sin 32  286 N

Hence

Percentage 
286 0.565
 0.32 or 32%
500

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1.7. Temperatures in Cutting
Temperature rise (due to heat lost in cutting ⇒ raising temp.
in cutting zone) - its major adverse effects:
1. Lowers the strength, hardness, stiffness and wear
resistance of the cutting tool (i.e. alters tool shape)
2. Causes uneven dimensional changes (machined parts)
3. Induce thermal damage and metallurgical changes in the
machined surface (⇒ properties adversely affected)
Sources of heat in machining:
a. Work done in shearing (primary shear zone)
b. Energy lost due to friction (tool-chip interface)
c. Heat generated due to tool rubbing on machined surface
(especially dull or worn tools)
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• Expression: mean temperature in orthogonal cutting:
0.000665Y f Vt0
T 3
c K
where,
T: ( Tmean) mean temperature in [K]
Yf: flow stress in [MPa]
ρc: volumetric specific heat in [kJ/m3]
K: thermal diffusivity (ratio of thermal conductivity to
volumetric specific heat) in [m2/s]
Equation shows that temperature,T:
increases with material strength, cutting speed (V), depth
of cut (t0); decreases with ρc and K

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• Mean temperature in turning on a lathe is given by

Tmean  V f
a b

where,
V : cutting speed
f : feed of the tool
Approximate values of the exponents a and b:
Carbide tools: a = 0.2, b = 0.125
High-speed steel tools: a = 0.5, b = 0.375
Also note how this relation shows the increase in
temperature with increased cutting speed and feed
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 A. Temperature Distribution
• Sources of heat generation
are concentrated in
primary shear zone, and
At tool–chip interface
⇒ v. large temp. gradients
in the cutting zone (right)
• Note max. temp is about
halfway up tool-chip
interface (why?)

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Note:
• Highest temp.:1100ºC
• High temp. appear as dark- color on chips (by oxidation
at high V )
• Reason: as V ↑
⇒ time for heat
dissipation ↓
⇒ temp. ↑

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Figure 1.11 Temperatures developed in turning 52100 steel: (a) flank temperature
distribution
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 The temperature increases with
cutting speed
Chips can become red hot and create
a safety hazard for the operator
The chip carries away most (90%) of
the heat generated during machining
(see right)
• Rest carried by tool and work piece
Thus high machining speed (V ) ⇒
1. More energy lost in chips
2. Machining time decreases
(i.e. favorable machining economics)
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B.Techniques for Measuring Temperature
Temperatures and their distribution can be
determined using:
• Thermocouples (placed on tool or work piece).
• Electromotive force (thermal emf) at the tool-chip
interface
• Measuring infrared radiation (using a radiation
pyrometer) from the cutting zone (only measures
surface temperatures)

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 END •THE END
OF
CHAP
TER
ONE

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