Lecture 2: Vertical Stresses

in a soil mass
University of
Dar Es Salaam
Department of 2022/2023
Transportation and
Geotechnical Engineering

1 Dr. John E. Elvis

 Introduction
Learning Outcomes
 Understand how surface loads are distributed
within soil as an elastic material.
 Understand the concept of effective stress.
 Be able to calculate total stress increase from
surface loads and the effective stresses within
soils.
 Understand and be able to determine the effects
of seepage stresses on effective stresses within
soils.
22
 Introduction
Importance
 In a given mass of soil, the solid particles are
distributed randomly with void spaces, which are
continuous and occupies by water or air.
 The nature of stress distribution along the soil
profile is of importance to analyze problems such
as compressibility of soil (settlement), bearing
capacity of the foundations, stability of
embankment and lateral (horizontal) earth
pressure on retaining walls.
33
 Introduction
Types of stresses
Stresses

Geostatic stress Stresses from surface loads

Total Stress 1.Point Load

Effective Stress 2.Line Load
Pore Water Pressure 3.Strip Load
4.Triangular Load
5.Circular Load
Total Stress = Effective Stress+ Pore Water Pressure 6.Rectangular Load

4
 A: GEOSTATIC STRESS

Stress due to self weight (Single layer)

Stress on element A can be determine from the

mass of overlaying material. If represents the unit
weight of soil, the vertical stress is
Ground surface Vertical stress profile

Soil
γ Z

A
55 𝝈 𝒛 =𝛄 𝐱 𝐙
 Geostatic stress
Stress due to self weight (Multiple
layer)
The stress in multiple layer, having different densities,
can be calculated as + .

Ground surface
h1 𝛾1 𝑍1
𝑍2 σ 1h 1 𝛾 1
h2 𝛾2 𝑍 3σ 2h 1 𝛾 1 + h2 𝛾 2
66 h3 𝛾3 h 1 𝛾1 +h2 𝛾 2 +h3 𝛾 3
σ
 Geostatic stress
Stress due to self weight and uniform
surcharge
Stress on element A can be determine from the
mass of overlaying material. If represents the unit
weight of soil, the vertical stress is
Conversion land surface
h
q σ q =γ x h
Original ground surface
Soil
Z Z
γ
77 𝝈𝐳 = 𝛄 𝐱 𝐡 + 𝛄 𝐱 𝐙
 Geostatic stress (Cont.….)
Types of geostatic stress

There are three types of geostatic stress:

1. Consider a soil mass having the level of
water table located at ground surface. The
total vertical stress at depth Z is equal to
the weight of all materials (solids + water)
per unit area above that depth.
Mathematically, this is presented as shown
in the following Eq.
8 𝛔 𝐳= 𝛄 𝐬𝐚𝐭 𝐱𝐙
 Geostatic stress (Cont.….)
Types of geostatic stress
2. In saturated condition, the pores in the soil mass
(used to separate the grains) are filled with water,
and pressure induced on it is termed as pore water
pressure. It increase the volume or decrease the
frictional resistance of the soil mass. The pore
pressure at any depth Z is hydrostatics since the
void space between the solid particles is
continuous, therefore at depth z;
9 𝐮 𝐰 =𝛄 𝐰 𝐱 𝐙
 Geostatic stress (Cont.….)
Types of geostatic stress

3. The pressure transmitted through the grain to

grain at the contact points through a soil mass is
termed as effective stress. The difference between
the total stress and pore pressure, in saturated
soil, has been defined by Terzaghi as effective
stress ();

𝝈 𝒛 = 𝝈 𝐳 − 𝐮𝒘
′

10
 Geostatic stress (Cont.….)
The concept of effective stress

11
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example1{NOTE}
A clay layer 3.66 m thick rests beneath a deposit of
submerged sand 7.92 m thick. The top of the sand is
located 3.05 m below the surface of lake. The
saturated unit weight of the sand is 19.62 kN/ and of
the clay is 18.36 kN/.
a. Sketch the soil profile
b. Compute (i) the total vertical stress (ii) the pore
water pressure (iii) the effective stress at the mid
height
12
of clay layer.
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-1: Soil profile

13
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-1: Solution
(i) Total stress at the midpoint of the clay layer
18.36 + 7.92*19.62 + 3.05*9.81

(ii) Pore water pressure

9.81 + 7.92*9.81 + 3.05*9.81

(iii) Effective stress

14
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 2
The water table is located at a depth of 3.0 m
below the ground surface in a deposit of sand
11.0 m thick (Fig. 2). The sand is saturated
above the water table. The total unit weight of
the sand is 20 kN/. Calculate the (a) the total
pressure (b) the pore water pressure and (c) the
effective pressure at depths 0, 3.0, 7.0, and 11.0
m from the ground surface, and draw the
15
pressure distribution diagram.
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-2: Solution

16
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-2: Soil profile

17
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 3 {EXRCIRSE}
A clay stratum 8.0 m thick is located at a depth of
6 m from the ground surface. The natural
moisture content of the clay is 56% and = 2.75.
The soil stratum between the ground surface and
the clay consists of fine sand. The water table is
located at a depth of 2 m below the ground
surface. The submerged unit weight of fine sand
is 10.5 kN/m3, and its moist unit weight above
the water table is 18.68 kN/. Calculate the
18
effective stress at the centre of the clay
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-3: Soil profile

19
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-3: Solution
Saturated unit weight for sand:

Saturated and submerged unit weight for clay:

20
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-3: Solution (Cont.…)
Total stress, pore water pressure and effective
stress:
Total stress :

Pore water pressure :

Effective stress :

21
 Stress concept (Cont….)
Capillary water rise in soil mass
 If the water in the soil were subjected to no force
other than gravity, the soil above the water table is
perfectly dry.
 If the lower part of dry soil comes into contact with
water, the water rises in the voids to a certain
height above the free water surface (capillary rise).
The upward flow into the voids of the soil is
attributed to the surface tension of the water.
 The water that occupies the voids of dry soil, above
22 the water table constitutes soil moisture.
 Stress concept (Cont….)
Rise of water in capillary tube
Consider the capillary tube shown in Figure.
• is the height of capillary rise
• The upper surface of water assumes the
shape of the cup known as meniscus. It
joins the wall of the tube at angle ,
known as contact angle
• is the force that exists at the surface of
the meniscus. It is known as surface
tension. The components of the surface
tension are shown in the next slide
23 Figure
 Stress concept (Cont….)
Surface tension,
• If the meniscus has stopped moving upward in the tube, then
there must be equilibrium between the weight of the column
of water suspended from the meniscus and the force with
which the meniscus is clinging to the wall of the tube.
• Due to equilibrium, the height of water below the meniscus
can be calculated as shown in Eq. below:

24
Figure B
 Stress concept (Cont….)
Surface tension, (Cont.…)
• The surface tensions of the common liquids, at C, are
shown in the table below.
• For instance, the of water liquid in the tube is
calculated as shown below; and d are expressed in cm,
where d is diameter of the tube.

25
 Stress concept (Cont….)
Stress distribution below the meniscus

As shown in the Figure, points A and B

are atmospheric pressure. Due to laws of
hydraulics, the pressure at C is also
atmospheric. Since point D is higher
than C by then the pressure at D must
be less by Therefore, the tension in
water (capillary pressure) , below the
meniscus, is given by Equation below:

26 Figure
 Stress concept (Cont….)
Capillary rise in soil
A rough estimation of the height of capillary rise can
be determined from the equation below:

where e is the void ratio, is Hazen's effective diameter

in centimetres, and C is an empirical constant which can
have a value between 0.1 and 0.5 sq.
NOTE: As the effective grain size decreases, the size of the voids also
decreases, and the height of capillary rise increases.
27
 Stress concept (Cont….)
Capillary pressure in soil
Since the tension is below the atmospheric pressure, it
draws the grains of soil closer to each other at all points
where the menisci touch the soil grains. Intergranular
pressure of this type is called capillary pressure. It
should be noted that when the water is in compression,
is positive, when it is in tension, is negative.
Note:
The increase in the intergranular pressure due to
capillary pressure acting on the grains leads to greater
strength of the soil mass.
28
 Stress concept (Cont….)
Stress condition in soil due to
surface tension forces
As shown in Fig. (a), when a dry soil mass above the GWT
comes in contact with water, water rises by capillary action,
through the height with assumption that the soil within this
zone becomes saturated due to capillary water. If the menisci
at height concide with the ground surface, the plane of the
menisci is called the capillary fringe.

29
 Stress concept (Cont….)
Stress condition in soil due to surface
tension forces (Cont.….)
The vertical stress distribution of the dry and saturated soil mass are
shown in Fig. (b) and (d), respectively. As shown in Fig. (e), the tension
in water is maximum at menisci level, and zero at GWT level. Before the
rise of capillary water, the maximum stress of dry mass, at GWT level,
is . After the rise of capillary water, the maximum stress is given as .
Since the pore water pressure at GWT level is zero, the difference
between represents the increase in pressure due to capillary rise, known
as capillary pressure, . By substituting the parameters and below, the
can be related to void ratio, e and porosity, n. The distribution of capillary
pressure is shown in Fig. (c).
As shown in the diagrams, the pressure at any depth z can be written as
follows;

30
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 4
A layer of silty soil of thickness 5 m lies below the ground
surface at a particular site and below the silt layer lies a clay
stratum. The ground water table is at depth of 4 m below the
ground surface. The following data are available for both the
silt and clay layers of soil: Silt layer: = 0.018 mm, e = 0.7,
and = 2.7, Clay layer: e = 0.8 and = 2.75
Required: (a) height of capillary rise, (b) capillary pressure,
(c) the effective pressure at the ground surface, at GWT
level, at the bottom of silt layer and at depth of H = 6 m
below the ground level and (d) at a depth of 2 m below the
31
ground level.
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-4: Soil profile

32
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-4: Solution
Unit weight for silty soil:

Unit weight for clay stratum:

33
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-4: Solution (Cont.….)
(a) Height of capillary rise:

It is clear from that the plane of menisci formed by

the capillary water concedes with the ground surface
as the water table is also at a depth of 4 m from the
34 ground level.
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-4: Solution (Cont.….)
(b) Capillary pressure :
→
(c) E:
(i) Effective stress at the GL
Since the plane of menisci coincides with the ground surface, the
effective pressure at the ground surface is equal to the capillary
pressure, .
(ii) Total effective stress at the GWT level,

35
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-4: Solution (Cont.….)
(c) E:
(iii) Total effective stress at the bottom of silt layer
The bottom of silt layer is at depth of 1 m below the ground
water level. The effective stress due to this depth is given
below;

(iv) Total effective stress at depth of 6 m below the GL

This point lies in clay stratum at a depth of 1 m below the bottom
of the silty layer. The increase effective pressure is given as
follows;

36
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-4: Solution (Cont.….)
(c) Effective stress at 2 m below the GL:

The pressure distribution

diagram is given in the Fig.
below

37
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 5
At a particular site lies a layer of fine sand 8 m thick
below the ground surface and having a void ratio of
0.7. The GWT is at a depth of 4 m below the ground
surface. The average degree of saturation of the
sand above the capillary fringe is 50%. The soil is
saturated due to capillary action to a height of 2.0 m
above the GWT level. Assuming = 2.65, calculate
the total effective pressures at depths of 6 m and 3
m below the ground surface.
38
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-5: Soil profile

39
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-5: Solution
Unit weight of soil:

The moisture unit weight above the capillary fringe:

40
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-5: Solution (Cont.….)
Capillary pressure:

Effective stress at different levels:

(i) At ground surface,
(ii) Overburden pressure at fringe level

(iii) Effective pressure at fringe level

41
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-5: Solution (Cont.….)
Effective stress at different levels (cont.…):
(iv) Effective pressure at GWT level

(v) Effective pressure at 6 m below the GL

(vi) Effective pressure at depth 3 m below the GL

42
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-5: Pressure distribution
profile

43
B: STRESSES IN SOIL MASS
Introduction
• To analyse problems such as compressibility of soils,
bearing capacity of foundations, stability of the
embankments, and lateral pressures on the earth retaining
structures, we need to know the nature of the distribution
of stress along a given cross section of the soil profile.
• When the load is applied to the soil surface, it increases the
vertical stress within the soil mass. The increased stress are
greatest directly under the loaded area, but extend
indefinitely in all direction.
• The vertical stress increase with depth must be determined
first before calculating the amount of settlement that a
44foundation may undergo.
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
A: Stress due to Point Load
(Boussinesq Solution)
In 1985, Boussinesq developed the mathematical
relationships for determining normal and shear stress at
any point inside a homogeneous, elastic and isotropic
mediums due to a point loads located at the surface.
Assumption:
• The soil mass is elastic (fully recoverable strain), isotropic
(identical properties in all directions), homogeneous (identical
elastic properties) and semi-infinite depth (Unbounded in one
direction). Note: In reality, the soil is nonlinear elastoplastic,
anisotropic, inhomogeneous and soil problems are in 3D.
• Soil is weightless (Prior surface load the material is stress free)
45 • The load is the point load acting on the surface.
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
Boussinesq Formula
 According to Boussinesq analysis, the Fig. below
shows a load Q acting on the surface of semi-infinite
solid.

46
 Stress in soil mass (Cont.…)

Boussinesq Formula
The stress increase at a point in depth z and horizontal distance r from
the surface point load Q is given by Boussinesq as;
, where
𝑄
IB Boussinesq stress coefficient

Equation shows that the vertical stress is:

• Directly proportional to the loads
• Inversely proportional to the depth squared
• Proportional to the function of the ratio
It should be noted that the expression for z is
independent of elastic modulus (E) and poison's ratio ()
(i.e. stress increase with depth is the function of
47 geometry only)
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)
Boussinesq Formula (Variation of
for various values of )

48
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)
Boussinesq Formula (Variation of
for various values of )

49
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example 6 (Boussinesq Formula)

A concentrated load of 1000 kN is applied at the ground

surface. Use the Boussinesq equation to compute the vertical
pressure (i) at depth of 4 m below the load (ii) at a distance of
3 m at the same depth.
Solution (Example 6)

50
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example 7 (Boussinesq Formula)

A concentrated load of 5 kN is applied at the ground surface. Use
the Boussinesq equation to calculate the vertical stress at depth of
0, 2, 4, 6, 10 and 20 m, assuming that x=3 and y=4.

Solution (Example 7)

51
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)
Stress Isobar or Pressure Bulb Concept

• An ‘isobar’ is a
stress contour or a
line which connects
all points below the
ground surface at
which the vertical
pressure is the
same.
• An isobar diagram
52 is shown in Fig.
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)
Stress Isobar or Pressure Bulb Concept

53
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)
Stress Isobar or Pressure Bulb Concept

54
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)
Stress Isobar or Pressure Bulb Concept

55
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)
Stress Isobar or Pressure Bulb Concept

56
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)
Pressure distribution diagrams
The procedure for plotting an isobar
• From Eq. , assuming per unit area (10% isobar). Therefore,
• By assuming values for z, the corresponding -values will be
computed; From , the corresponding r/z and r values will be
obtained.
• For the same values of r on any side of the z-axis, the value
of is the same; hence the isobar is symmetrical with
respect to this axis.
• When r = 0, = 0.4775; the isobar crosses the line of action
of the load at a depth of = 2.815

57
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)
Pressure distribution diagrams
The calculation is best performed as shown in the Table
below, for the data of isobar of

Note: In general, isobars are not circular curves. Rather,

58
their shape approaches that of the lemmiscate.
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example 8 (Isobar stress profile)

A concentrated load of 1000 kN is applied at the ground

surface. Use the Boussinesq equation to construct an isobar
for 40 .
Solution (Example 8)

With values of Q and , the equation

above can be rearranged to obtained
the values of r as follows;
59
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example 8 (Isobar stress profile)

As shown in the figure below, the isobar stress profile
of , is plotted for z against r.

60
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
B: Stress due to Point Load
(Westergaard Solution)
Westergaard (1938) has obtained an elastic solution for stress
distribution in soil under a point load based on the non-isotropic
condition encountered in a cohesive soil. According to Westergaard,
the vertical stress, , caused by a point load is given as:

The equation is the same as Boussinesq if

the Poisson ratio () is zero. It should be
noted that the value of is taken to be zero
due to large lateral restraint

Then the equation above, when =0, reduced to:

Where, 𝐼 𝑤 =𝐾 𝑤 =¿
61 is the Westergaard coefficient
 Stress concept
Westergaard Solution-Variation of
and against r/z

Note
=
=

When r/z is less than about 0.8 and v=0, the Westergaard stress values are
62 approximately equal to two-thirds of Boussinesq stress values. For r/z of about
1.5, both solutions give identical values of stresses.
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 9 (Westergaard and Boussinesq)
A rectangular raft of size 30 by 20 m founded at depth
of 2.5 m below the ground surface is subjected to a
uniform pressure of 150 kPa. Assume the centre of the
area is the origin of coordinates (0, 0). and the corners
have coordinates (6, 15). Calculate stresses at a depth
of 20 m below the foundation level by the methods of
(a) Boussinesq, and (b) Westergaard at coordinates of
(0, 0), (0, 15), (6, 0) (6, 15) and (10, 25). Also
determine the ratios of the stresses as obtained by the
two methods. Neglect the effect of foundation depth
63on the stresses.
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-9: Solution
(a) Equations:

(b) The ratio r/z at a given location for z=20 m is shown in the table.

64
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-9: Solution (Cont.….)
(c) Sketch and stress calculation:
The results are tabulated
below for the given total
load Q = qBL = 150 x 12 x
30 = 54000 kN acting at (0,
0). Q/z2 =135.

65
 Stress concept
C: Stress due to Line Load
The basic equation for
computing the stress due to
line load is Boussinesq. As
shown from the Fig. the
vertical stress at P, , due to
line load, can be written as
follows:

Where;
or in other text books is the
influence factor due to line
66 load
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 10 (Stress due to line load)
A line load of 100 kN/metre run extends to a long
distance. Determine the intensity of vertical stress at a
point, 2 m below the surface and (i) directly under the
line load, and (ii) at a distance of 2 m perpendicular to
the line. Use Boussinesq theory

Solution Example 10
(i) Vertical stress at point P when r=0 (direct on the line load)

(ii) Vertical stress at point P when r=2 (direct on the line load)

67
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
D: Stress due uniform load on
rectangular area
The common shape of a loaded area in foundation engineering practice is
a rectangle, especially in the case of buildings. Applying the principle
of integration, one can obtain the vertical stress at a point, certain depth
below the centre or a corner of a uniformly loaded rectangular area,
based either on Boussinesq or on Westergaard solution for a point load.
As shown in the Fig. (next slide), consider an infinitely small unit area
of size . The pressure acting on this area is replaced by concentrated load
.

The increase in vertical stress due to load can be expressed as shown

in Eq. below:

68
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
E: Stress due uniform load on
rectangular area (Cont.…)
The stress solution can be produced by
integrating the pressure q over the entire
rectangle , by expressing and in terms of
angle and . The solution normally used is
of the following form:

Where,

I is an influence factor for load on rectangular

[( 2 𝑚𝑛 √ 𝑚 +𝑛 + 1
)
( 𝑚 +𝑛 +2 )
(
−1 2 𝑚𝑛 √ 𝑚 +𝑛 +1
)]
2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑞
𝜎 =
69 𝑧 4 𝜋 2 2 2 2
∗ +𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 2 2 2
𝑚 +𝑛 +1+𝑚 𝑛 ( 𝑚 +𝑛 +1 )
2 2
𝑚 +𝑛 +1 −𝑚 𝑛
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
E: Stress due uniform load on
rectangular area (Cont.…)
.
The influence I can be computed based on
the values of m and n, to determine stresses
below points that lie either inside or outside
the loaded
The chart in the next slide helps to compute
the parameters m and n.

70
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)

71
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)

72
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
E: Stress due uniform load on
rectangular area (Cont.…)
Computation of vertical stress below a point
Consider the two figures below

73
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
E: Stress due uniform load on
rectangular area (Cont.…)
Computation of vertical stress below a
point
A: Stress when the point is inside
In Fig(a), consider O is an interior point
of a rectangular loaded area ABCD. It
required to compute stress below this
point O at a depth z from the surface.
74
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
E: Stress due uniform load on
rectangular area (Cont.…)
A: Stress when the point is inside (cont.….)
For this purpose, divide the rectangle ABCD
into four rectangles marked 1 to 4 in the Fig. (a)
by drawing lines through O. For each of these
rectangles, compute the ratios. The influence
factor can be obtained from the figures, for
each of these ratios. The total vertical stress can
be calculated as follows:

75
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
Computation of vertical stress below a point
B: Stress when the point is outside
In Fig(b), consider O is an exterior point of a rectangular
loaded area ABCD. It required to compute stress below
this point O at a depth z from the surface. For this purpose,
divide the rectangle ABCD into four rectangles marked 1
to 4 in the Fig. (b) by drawing lines through O. The point O
is the corner point of the rectangular OC. From the figure
(b), it can be seen that the area ABCD is calculated as
follows: Area ABCD = OC O O+ O. Therefore, the
vertical stress at P, located at depth z below O, due to
surcharge load per unit area ABCD, is given as:

76
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 12A (Stress due to
rectangular loaded area )
ABCD is a raft foundation of multi-storey building,
where AB=50 m, BC=30 m. The uniformly distributed
load over the raft is 360 kPa. Determine at depth of
20 m below point O, where A= 15 m and O = 20 m.
Use the Fig. below:

77
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-12A: Solution
(a) Area of ABCD

(b) Calculate the influence factor

Rectangles l b m n

(c) Vertical stress

78
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 12B (Stress due to
rectangular loaded area )
A rectangular concrete slab, 10 by 15 m, rests on the surface of a soil
mass. The load on the slab is 450 kN/. Determine the vertical stress
increase at a depth of 10 m (a) under the centre of the slab, point A
(b) under point B (c) at a distance of 5 m from a corner, point C

Plan view `10 m A B

C
15 m 5m

Section view Soil

`10
m

79 A B C
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-12B: Solution
(a) Strategic plan
The slab is rectangular and the equations for a uniformly loaded area
are for the corner of the area. Divide the area so that the point of
interest is a corner of a rectangle(s). Extend the loaded area if the point
of interest is outside it (loaded area). The extension is fictitious, so you
have to subtract the fictitious increase in vertical stress for the
extended area.
(b) Calculation.
(i) Identify the loading type
- Uniformly loaded area
(ii) Divide the rectangle so that the centre is a corner
- As shown in Fig. (a) (next slide), in all four rectangles, point C is excluded
for simplicity, so it is required to find the vertical stress increase for one
80 rectangle of size B = 5 m, L = 7.5 m, and multiply the results by 4.
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-12B: Solution (cont.…)

(b) Calculation.
(ii) Divide the rectangle so that the centre is a corner (Cont.….)

(a) (b)

From the chart, the value of = 0.105.

81
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-12B: Solution (cont.…)

(b) Calculation (cont.…).
(a) Vertical stress increase at the centre of the slab (Point A)
 Rectangular load, , 3 kPa
 Vertical stress,

(b) Vertical stress increase for point B

Point B is at the corner of two rectangles, each of width 10 m and
length 7.5 m. Required to find the vertical stress increase for one
rectangle and multiply the result by 2.
Note:
In your calculation, you should
be aware that stress increase at
82 B is lower than A, as expected.
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-12B: Solution (cont.…)

(b) Calculation (cont.…).
(c) Vertical stress increase at C
Stress at point C is outside the rectangular slab. The rectangle
is extended to C (as shown in Fig. (b)). Find the stress
increase for the large rectangle of width B = 15 m, length L =
15 m, and then subtract the stress increase for the smaller
rectangle of width B = 5 m and length L = 15 m.
• Larger rectangle: m=15/1015/10
• Small rectangle: m=5/1015/10
83
• Vertical stress: =
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
F: Stress under uniformly
loaded circular footing
A plan and section view of vertical stress,
under uniformly circular loaded footing, at
any point P along the axis, are shown in Fig.
(i). By assuming that is an element area on
the footing and q is uniform load, the point
load The vertical stress at point P due to
point load is expressed as:

Integrate as follows:

84 Vertical stress:
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
F: Stress under uniformly loaded
circular footing (cont.….)
The influence diagram for vertical normal stress at various points within an
elastic half-space under a uniformly loaded circular area.

is the influence factor,

which can be used to
calculate vertical stress,

85
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 13 (Stress under uniformly
loaded circular footing )
A water tank is required to be constructed with a circular
foundation having a diameter of 16 m founded at a depth of 2 m
below the ground surface. The estimated distributed load on the
foundation is 325 kN/. Assuming that the subsoil extends to a great
depth and is isotropic and homogeneous, determine the stresses at
points:
(i) z = 8 m, r = 0,
(ii) z = 8 m, r = 8 m,
(iii) z = 16 m, r = 0 and
(iv) z = 1 6 m , r = 8m,
where r is the radial distance from the central axis. Neglect the
effect of the depth of the foundation on the stresses.
86
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-13: Solution
By using the chart and data provided, , 8 m, the results
are provided in a tabular form as follows:

87
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-13B: Vertical Stress Increase
Due to a Ring Load
A silo is supported on a ring foundation, as shown in Figure (a). The total
vertical load is 4 MN. (a) Plot the vertical stress increase with depth up to 8 m
under the centre of the ring (point O, Figure (a)). (b) Determine the maximum
vertical stress increase and its location.

88 (a) (b)
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-13B: Vertical Stress Increase
Due to a Ring Load (Solution)
(a) Strategic plan
To use the equation for a uniform circular area to simulate the ring
foundation, you need to create two artificial circular foundations, one with a
radius of 5 m and the other with a radius of 3 m. Both foundations must be
fully loaded with the applied uniform, vertical stress. By subtracting the
vertical stress increase of the smaller foundation from the larger foundation,
you would obtain the vertical stress increase from the ring foundation. You
are applying here the principle of superposition.
(b) Calculate the imposed surface stress

89
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-13B: Vertical Stress Increase
Due to a Ring Load (Solution)
(a) Create two solid circular foundations of radii 5 m and 3 m.
As shown in Figure (b), large denotes the foundation of radius 5 m and small
denotes the foundation of radius 3 m.
(b) Create a spreadsheet to do the calculations.
Large Small
z -
1 5 0.992 3 0.986 0.024 1.9
2 2.5 0.949 1.5 0.829 0.119 9.5
3 1.67 0.864 1.0 0.646 0.217 17.3
4 1.25 0.756 0.75 0.488 0.268 21.3
5 1 0.646 0.60 0.369 0.277 22
6 `0.83 0.547 0.50 0.284 0.262 20.9
7 0.71 0.461 0.43 0.223 0.238 18.9
90 8 0.63 0.390 0.38 0.179` 0.211 16.8
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-13B: Vertical Stress Increase
Due to a Ring Load (Solution)
(c) Plot the vertical stress increase variation with depth..
This is shown in the Fig. below:

(d) Determine the maximum vertical stress increase and depth

From Fig. (c), the maximum vertical stress increase is 22 kPa and the depth
91 of occurrence is 5 m from the surface.
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
G: Stress due to loaded area of
irregular shape
When the foundation consists of a large number of footings or when the
loaded mats or rafts are not regular in shape, a chart developed by
Newmark (1942) is more practical than the methods explained before. The
Newmark chart is based on the concept of the vertical stress below the
centre of the circular area. The vertical stress underneath the centre of a
uniformly loaded circular area has been shown to be:

Where: a is the radius of loaded area, q is intensity of uniform load, and z

is the depth at which the vertical stress is required. The equation above
may rewritten in the form of :
The ratio (𝑎⁄𝑧) is interpreted as relative radii of
circular-loaded areas required to cause
particular values of the ratio of the vertical
92 stress to the intensity of the uniform loading
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
G: Stress due to loaded area of
irregular shape
S.N of Number of
If a series of values is assigned for the ratio , cycles influence per ring
such as 0, 0.1, 0.2, ..., 0.9, and 1.00, a 1 0.0 0.000
corresponding set of values for the relative
radii, , may be obtained as shown in the table. 2 0.1 0.270 20
If a particular depth is specified, then a series 3 0.2 0.400 20
of concentric circles can be drawn. Since the
first has a zero radius and the eleventh has 4 0.3 0.518 20
infinite radius, in practice, only nine circles 5 0.4 0.637 20
are drawn. Each ring or annular space causes
a stress of q/10 at a point beneath the centre at 6 0.5 0.766 20
the specified depth z, since the number of 7 0.6 0.918 20
annular spaces (c) is ten. From this table it
can be seen that the widths of the annular 8 0.7 1.110 20
slices or rings are greater the farther away 9 0.8 1.387 20
they are from the centre. The circle for an
influence of 1.0 has an infinitely large radius. 10 0.9 1.908 20
93 11 1.0
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
G: Stress due to loaded area of
irregular shape
Assume a set of equally spaced rays, call it S in number, is drawn emanating
from the centre of the circles, thus dividing each annular area into CxS
sectors, and the total area into CS sectors. If the value of 20 is adopted for S,
the total number of sectors in this case will be 10 × 20 = 200. Each sector
will cause a vertical stress of 1/200 of the total value at the centre at the
specified depth and is referred to as a ‘mesh’ or an ‘influence unit’. The
value 1/200 = 0.005 is said to be the ‘influence factor’ for the chart. Each
mesh may thus be understood to represent an influence area. Based on this
theory, the construction of Newmark’s influence chart is given as follows:
1. For a given depth (say, 10 m), the radii of the circles, , are calculated
from the relative radii as calculated in the Table (2.70 m, 4.00 m, 5.18
m, ... and so on).
2. The circles are then drawn to a convenient scale (say, 1 cm = 2m).
3. A number of uniformly spaced rays (say, 20) is drawn, emanating from
94 the centre of the circles (see the Figure on the next slide).
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
G: Stress due to loaded area of
irregular shape
The resulting diagram appears as
shown in the Fig.; on it is drawn a
vertical line , represent the depth z
to the scale used in drawing the
circles (if the scale used is 1 cm = 2
m, will be 5 cm). The influence
value for this chart will be 0.005.
The diagram can be used for other
values of z by simply assuming that
the scale to which it is drawn alters;
thus, if z is to be 5 m the line
represent 5 m and the scale is 1 cm
= 1 m (similarly, if z = 20 m, the
scale becomes 1 cm = 4 m).
95
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)

96
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
G: Stress due to loaded area of
irregular shape (cont.….)
The procedure for obtaining vertical pressure at any point below a loaded area is as
follows:
1. Determine the depth z below the uniformly loaded area at which the stress
increase is required
2. Plot the plan of the loaded area, on a tracing paper, with a scale of z equal to the
unit length of the chart (the same scale to which the distance on the chart
represents the specified depth)
3. Place the plan (plotted in step 2) on the influence chart in such a way that the
point below which the stress is to be determined is located at the centre of the
chart.
4. Count the number of elements (N) of the chart enclosed by the plan of the
loaded area.
5. The stress at the specified depth at the specified point is then given by: , where I
= Influence factor of the chart.
97 Note: The stress may be found at any point which lies either inside or outside the
loaded area with the aid of the chart.
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 14 (Stress due to loaded area
of irregular shape)
The plan view of a foundation of uniform thickness for a building
is shown in the Figure. Determine the vertical stress increase at a
depth of 4 m below the centroid. The foundation applies a vertical
stress of 200 kPa on the soil surface.

10 m

1m
2.5 m

2m
98
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-14: Solution
(a) Hints
You need to locate the centroid of the foundation, which is obtained by
using the given dimensions. The shape of the foundation does not fit
neatly into one of the standard shapes (e.g. rectangles or circles)
discussed. The convenient method is to use the Newmark’s chart.
(b) Solution
(i) Centroid
Divide the loaded area into a
number of regular shapes. 1
Take the sum of moments of
the areas about y-y and divide
by the sum of the areas to get 2 3
y
x and moments about x-x to
99 get y. x
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-14: Solution (cont.……)

(b) Solution (cont.….)
(i) Centroid (cont.…)

10
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-14: Solution (cont.……)

(b) Solution (cont.….)
(ii) Scale and plot
The scale on the chart is set equal
to the depth z. The centroid is
located at the centre of the chart
and the foundation is scaled
using the depth scale.
(iii) Count the number of segment
( covered by the foundations.

(iv) Calculate the vertical stress.

= 200x0.005x61
10 61 kPa.
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
H: Stress due embankment
loading
The embankment with sloping sides
represent trapezoidal loads. When the top
width of embankment reduced to zero,
the loads becomes a triangular strip loads.
Required to determine the stresses due to
a linearly increasing vertical loading on
the surface. As shown in Fig. (a), a
linearly increasing vertical loading starts
from zero at A to a finite value q per unit
length at B. Assume a strip element db at
a distance b from A, the load per unit
length , dq, can be written as:

10
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
H: Stress due embankment
loading (cont.…)

If dq is considered as a line load on the surface, the change in vertical stress, d,

can be written as:
is non-dimensional coefficient whose
values for various and are given in
the table in the next slide.
If P lies in the plane BC, in Fig. (a),
then , at , then reduced to:

10
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
H: Stress due embankment
loading (cont.…)

Vertical stress for asymmetrical Trapezoidal Loading

Based on the concept discussed in the previous slides, the vertical stress of
symmetrical trapezoidal load can be expressed as:

Where, and are the angles subtended

at the point P and . When R=1, the
stresses are due to that of trapezoidal
loading. When b=0, =0, will be due to
triangular loading and can be
calculated as:

10
 Stress concept (Cont.…)
H: Stress due embankment
loading (cont.…)

The figure shows the cross section

of an embankment of height H. For
this two-dimensional loading
condition the vertical stress
increase may be expressed as

10
 Stress concept (cont.…)
Graphs for determine vertical stress
due embankment loading

10
 Stress concept (cont.…)

10
 Stress concept (cont.…)

10
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 15 (Vertical stress due
embankment loading )
A 3 m high embankment is to be constructed as shown in the Figure. If the
unit weight of soil used in the embankment is 19 kN/, calculate the vertical
stress due to the embankment loading at point and

10
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 15 (Vertical stress due
embankment loading )
3=57 kN/ Point Block b (m) a (m) b/z
z=3m ACEF 1.5 3 0.5 1.0 0.39
EDBF 4.5 3 1.5 1.0 0.477
The embankment is divided
into blocks as shown in the AGH 0 1.5 0 0.5 0.15
figure (previous slides), for GKDB 7.5 3 2.5 1.0 0.493
making use of the graph given
HKC 0 1.5 0 0.5 0.15
in the previous slides. The
calculations are given in the MLDB 10.5 3 3.5 1.0 0.498
Table. MACL 1.5 3 0.5 1.0 0.39
The vertical stress is calculated as shown below

11
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 16 (Stress due to loaded area
of irregular shape)
An embankment is shown in the Figure. Determine the stress increase under
the embankment at point A.

11
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-16: Solution

Refer to Fig (b) and (c),

From Fig. (b)

From the chart (slide 112),

11
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-16: Solution

Also, from figure (c):

From the chart shown in slide

112,

Therefore:

11
 Stress concept (Summary)

A: Summary/Conclusion
In this lecture, we considered the vertical stresses induced on soils
from some common types of surface loads, and the principle of
effective stresses, which is the most important principle in soil
mechanics. The distribution and amount of vertical total stress
transmitted to a soil by surface loads is determined using
Boussinesq elastic solution. The vertical total stress increase from
surface loads are distributed such that their magnitudes decrease
with depth and distance away from their points of application. The
most important principle in soil mechanics is the principle of
effective stress. Soil deformation is due to effective stress and a
not total stress. Seepage stresses can increase or decrease the
11 effective stresses depending on the seepage direction.
 Stress concept (Summary)

B: Definitions of key terms

Stress, or intensity of loading, is the load per unit area. The fundamental
definition of stress is the ratio of the force Q acting on a plane surface area A.
Effective stress () is the stress carried by the soil particles.
Total stress (σ) is the stress carried by the soil particles and the liquids and
gases in the voids.
Stress (strain) state at a point is a set of stress (strain) vectors corresponding to
all planes passing through that point. Mohr’s circle is used to graphically
represent stress (strain) state for two-dimensional bodies.
Porewater pressure (u) is the pressure of the water held in the soil pores.
Isotropic means the material properties are the same in all directions, and the
loadings are the same in all directions.
Elastic materials are ideal materials that return to their original configuration
11 on unloading and obey Hooke’s law.
 TUTORIAL 1
QUESTION 1
Three foundations are located next to each other (See the Figure). Determine the stress
increases at A, B, and C at a depth of 2 m below the ground surface.
 TUTORIAL 1
QUESTION 2
Determine the increase in vertical stress at a depth of 5 m below the centroid of the
foundation shown in the Figure.
 TUTORIAL 1
QUESTION 3
A rectangular foundation 4 m 3 6 m (See the Figure) transmits a stress of 100
kPa on the surface of a soil deposit. Plot the distribution of increases of vertical
stresses with depth under points A, B, and C up to a depth of 20 m. At what
depth is the increase in vertical stress below A less than 10% of the surface
stress?
 TUTORIAL 1
QUESTION 4
A soil profile consists of a clay layer underlain by a sand layer, as shown in the
Figure. If a tube is inserted into the bottom sand layer and the water level rises
to 1 m above the ground surface, determine the vertical effective stresses and
pore water pressures at A, B, and C. What is the value of the pore water
pressure at A to cause the vertical effective stress there to be zero?
 TUTORIAL 1
QUESTION 5
A farmer requires two steel silos to store wheat. Each silo is
8 m in external diameter and 10 m high. The foundation for
each silo is a circular concrete slab thickened at the edge.
The total load of each silo filled with wheat is 9552 kN. The
soil consists of a 30 m thick deposit of medium clay above a
deep deposit of very stiff clay. The farmer desires that the
silos be a distance of 2 m apart and hires you to recommend
whether this distance is satisfactory. The area is subjected to
a gust wind speed of 100 kilometres per hour. Plot the
distribution of vertical stress increase at the edges and at the
centre of one of the silos up to a depth of 16 m. Assume the
soft clay layer is semi-infinite and the concrete slab is
flexible. Use a spreadsheet to tabulate and plot your results.
 TUTORIAL 1
QUESTION 6
You are the geotechnical engineer for a proposed office building in a densely
clustered city. The office building will be constructed adjacent to an existing
office complex. The soil at the site is a deposit of very dense sand E = 45 MPa
and n = 0.3. The sand rests on a deep deposit of dense gravel. The existing
high-rise complex is founded on a concrete slab, 100 m x 120 m, located at 2
m below ground surface, and transmits a load of 2400 MN to the soil. Your
office foundation is 50 m x 80 m and transmits a load of 1000 MN. You also
intend to locate your foundation at 2 m below ground level. The front of your
building is aligned with the existing office complex, and the side distance is
0.5 m. The
lesser dimension of each building is the frontal dimension. The owners of the
existing building are concerned about possible settlement of their building due
to your building. You are invited to a meeting with your client, the owners of
the existing building, and their technical staff. You are expected to determine
what effects your office building would have on the existing building. You
only have one hour to make the preliminary calculations. You are expected to
present the estimated increase in stresses of the existing office complex will
due to the construction of your office building. Prepare your analysis and
 TUTORIAL 1
QUESTION 7
A water tank, 15 m in diameter and 10 m high, is proposed for a site where
there is an existing pipeline (See the Figure). Plot the distribution of vertical
and lateral stress increases imposed by the water tank on the pipeline along
one-half the circumference nearest to the tank. The empty tank’s weight (deal
load) is 350 kN. Assume the water tank is filled to its capacity.
End of Lecture 2 – TR 334
TUESDAY
WEEK – {1-3}
22/11/2022
12