Data Communication CSE 315

-Data and Signal-

Prof. Dr. A.K.M. Muzahidul Islam

Computer Science & Engineering (CSE)
United International University (UIU)

Spring 2022
 Course Outline: Summary
1. Topic 1: Introduction to Data Communication
2. Topic 2: OSI and TCP/IP Layered Model
3. Topic 3: IP addressing (CT-1)
4. Topic 4: Introduction to Analog and Digital Communication
5. Topic 5: Transmission Media
6. Topic 6: Channel Capacity
7. Topic 7: Bit/Byte Stuffing (CT-2)
8. Topic 8: Fourier Transformation
9. Topic 9: Line Coding ( until here Mid Term)
10. Topic 10: Digital to Analog Conversion and Modulation (CT-3)
11. Topic 11: Multiplexing
12. Topic 12: Quantization
13. Topic 13: Error Detection and Error Correction
14. Topic 14: Information Theory/Entropy
15. Topic 15: Cellular Technology (CT-4)
 Resources
• Data Communications and Networking.
Behrouz A. Forouzan
• Data and Computer Communications. William
Stallings (TENTH EDITION)
• Modern Digitial and Analog Communication
Systems. BP-Lathi Zhi Ding (4th edition)
• Computer Networks Andrew S. Tanenbaum
 Assignment No. 1 HDD

HDD
VM VM VM

OS – Windows/Solaris

– Download and Install VirtualBox - Oracle

– Download and Install Linux e.g. Ubuntu OS, CentOS
– Install and Configure Wireshark – Latest version
– Create a 3-min video file that shows various
functions ??? of Wireshark
– Upload the file in the Google Drive
• Section A:
– Deadline to submit : December 07
 Outline

Transmission Terminology

Capacity Model

Guided/Unguided Media

Summary
1-5
Spring 2006
 Transmission Terminology
• Data transmission occurs between Transmitter Tx
and Receiver Rx over some transmission medium:
– Transmission Medium: Guided or Unguided.
– In both cases, communication is in the form of electromagnetic
waves.
• Guided media
– The waves are guided along a physical path.
– Ex. Twisted pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber.
• Unguided media or Wireless media
– Provides a means for transmitting electromagnetic waves but Do
Not guide them;
– Ex. propagation through air, vacuum, and seawater.
 As a function of time, an electromagnetic signal can be either
analog or digital.
Analog signal :

The signal intensity varies in a smooth,

or continuous , fashion over time.
There are no breaks or discontinuities in
the signal. Example: Speech

Digital signal :

The signal intensity maintains a

constant level for some period of time
and then abruptly changes to another
constant level, in a discrete fashion.
Example: binary 1s and 0s.
Periodic Signal : The simplest sort
of signal, in which the same signal
pattern repeats over time.

Figure 3.2 shows an example of a

periodic continuous signal (sine
wave) and a periodic discrete signal
(square wave).

Mathematically a signal s(t) is

defined to be periodically, iff

s ( t + T ) = s (t) - ∞ < t < +∞

In data communication, we commonly use periodic analog

signals (because they need less bandwidth) and aperiodic
digital signals (can present variation of data).
 Frequency, Spectrum, and
Bandwidth

• A Signal is transmitted by the Tx and transmitted over a

medium
– The Signal is a function of Time
– The Signal can also be expressed as a function of Frequency
• i.e., consists component of different frequencies
• Time Domain
– Signal Intensity vs Time
• Frequency Domain
– Peak Signal Intensity of component vs Frequency
• Frequency Domain view of a Signal is more important to an
understanding of data transmission than a Time Domain.
9
 Time and frequency domains

An analog signal is best represented in the frequency domain.

 Sine Wave
• Is the fundamental periodic signal
• A Sine waves can be used to represent any
other waveform using Fourier Transforms.
• Can be represented by three parameters
s(t) = A sin(2πft + φ) Sinusoid
– Peak amplitude (A)
• Maximum value or strength of the signal over time
• Typically measured in volts
– Frequency (f)
• Rate at which the signal repeats
• Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
• Period (T) is the amount of time for one repetition; T = 1/f
– Phase (φ)
• Relative position in time within a single period of signal
 The effect of varying A, f, φ

The Has the same

frequency is frequency and
1 Hz; thus the phase but a
period is T = peak
1 second. amplitude of
0.5.

The effect of a
We have f = phase shift of
2, which is π/4 radians,
equivalent to which is 45
T = 0.5. degrees (2π
radians = 360˚
= 1 period).
 Wavelength (λ)
The wavelength (λ) of a signal
-
distance occupied by a single
cycle

Can also be stated as the Especially when v=c

distance between two points c = 3*108 m/s (speed of light in free space)

of corresponding phase of λ = cT
two consecutive cycles

Assuming signal velocity v,

then the wavelength is Or equivalently
related to the period as λ = c/f ; T = 1/f
λ = vT
Wavelength
 Spectrum and Bandwidth
Spectrum
• Range of frequencies contained in signal
• Set of Frequencies e.g., f, 3f, etc.

Absolute bandwidth
• Width of spectrum
• The bandwidth is 3f – f = 2f.

Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth)

• Effective bandwidth is the band within which most of the signal energy is
concentrated.
• Any transmission system (transmitter + medium + receiver) will be able to
accommodate only a limited band of frequencies i.e., limits the data rate that
can be carried on the transmission medium.
 Example 1
• If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with
frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is the bandwidth?
Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a maximum
amplitude of 10 V
B = fh - fl = 900 - 100 = 800 Hz
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 (see
Figure 13.4 )
 Example 2
• A signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60
Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the
signal contains all integral frequencies of the same amplitude
B = fh - fl, 20 = 60 – fl, fl = 60 - 20 = 40 Hz
 Example 3

• A signal has a spectrum with frequencies between

1000 and 2000 Hz (bandwidth of 1000 Hz). A
medium can pass frequencies from 3000 to 4000 Hz
(a bandwidth of 1000 Hz). Can this signal faithfully
pass through this medium?

• The answer is definitely no. Although the signal can

have the same bandwidth (1000 Hz), the range does
not overlap. The medium can only pass the
frequencies between 3000 and 4000 Hz; the signal is
totally lost.
 Summary
Advantages:
• Increased bandwidth -> increased accuracy
• Increased frequency -> increased data rate

Disadvantages:
• Increased bandwidth -> increased cost
• Increased frequency -> increased complexity (cost)

A designer chooses a signal that maximizes data rate,

minimizes errors and minimizes cost.
19
Earlier observed, analog signals,
used to represent analog data, and digital
signals, used to represent digital data.

Digital data can also be represented by

analog signals by use of a modem
(modulator/demodulator).

The modem converts a series of binary

(two-valued) voltage pulses into an
analog signal by encoding the digital data
onto a carrier frequency.

Analog data can be represented by digital

signals. The device that performs this
function for voice data is a codec (coder-
decoder).
 Transmission Impairments
• Signal received may differ from signal transmitted causing:
– Analog gradation of signal quality
– Digital - bit error- des
• Most significant impairments are
– Attenuation and attenuation distortion
• Loss of Energy
• Signal strength falls off with distance over any transmission medium
– Delay distortion
• Signal changes its form or shape
• Signals’ arrival time vary
• Occurs in transmission cables such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, and
optical fiber
• Does not occur when signals are transmitted through the air by means of
antennas
– Noise
• Unwanted signals inserted between transmitter and receiver
 Example 2

Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal

with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2 bits). The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as

3.23
 DATA RATE LIMITS
A very important consideration in data communications is how fast
we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel. Data rate
depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Topics:

▪ Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

▪ Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
▪ Using Both Limits

3.24
 Capacity of a System
• The bit rate of a system increases with an increase
in the number of signal levels we use to denote a
symbol.
• A symbol can consist of a single bit or “n” bits.
• The number of signal levels = 2n.
• As the number of levels goes up, the spacing
between level decreases -> increasing the
probability of an error occurring in the presence of
transmission impairments.

3.25
 Nyquist Bandwidth
In the case of a channel that is noise free:
• The limitation of data rate is simply the bandwidth of the
signal
– If the rate of signal transmission is 2B then a signal with frequencies no
greater than B is sufficient to carry the signal rate
– Given a bandwidth of B, the highest signal rate that can be carried is 2B
• For binary signals, the data rate that can be supported by B
Hz is 2B bps
• With multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formula becomes:
C = 2B log2M
• Data rate can be increased by increasing the number of
different signal elements
– This increases burden on receiver
– Noise and other impairments limit the practical value of M
 Increasing the levels of a signal increases the
probability of an error occurring.
In other words, it reduces the reliability of the
3.27 system.
 Nyquist Theorem
• Nyquist gives the upper bound for the bit rate of a
transmission system by calculating the bit rate
directly from the number of bits in a symbol (or
signal levels) and the bandwidth of the system
(assuming 2 symbols/per cycle).
• Nyquist theorem states that for a noiseless channel:
C = 2 B log22n
C= capacity in bps
B = bandwidth in Hz

3.28
 Example 1

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz

transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The maximum
bit rate can be calculated as

3.29
 Example 3

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a

bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase the

number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we have 128 levels, the bit
rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.

3.30
 Shannon Capacity Formula

• Considering the relation of data rate,

noise and error rate:
– Faster data rate shortens each bit so bursts of noise
corrupts more bits
– Given noise level, higher rates mean higher errors
• Shannon developed formula relating
these to signal to noise ratio (in decibels)
– SNRdb=10 log10 (signal/noise)
– Capacity C = B log2(1+SNR)
– Theoretical maximumcapacity
– Get much lower rates in practice
 Shannon’s Theorem

• Shannon’s theorem gives the capacity

of a system in the presence of noise.

C = B log2(1 + SNR)

3.32
 Example 4

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of

the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the
noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For this channel
the capacity C is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot
receive any data through this channel.

3.33
 Example 5

We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular

telephone line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth
of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this
channel the capacity is calculated as

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is
34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this, we
can either increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the
signal-to-noise ratio.

3.34
 Example 6

The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume

that SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. The
theoretical channel capacity can be calculated as

3.35
 Example 7

For practical purposes, when the SNR is very high, we can assume that SNR + 1 is
almost the same as SNR. In these cases, the theoretical channel capacity can be
simplified to

For example, we can calculate the theoretical capacity of the previous example
as

3.36
 Example 8

We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this channel is 63. What are the
appropriate bit rate and signal level?

Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.

3.37
The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit;
the Nyquist formula tells us how many signal
levels we need.

3.38
 Example 8 (continued)

The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit. For better performance we choose
something lower, 4 Mbps, for example. Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the
number of signal levels.

3.39
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
For Telecommunications

Figure 4.1
depicts the
electromagnetic
spectrum and
indicates the
frequencies
at which various
guided media
and unguided
transmission
techniques
operate.
The three guided
media commonly
used for data
transmission:

(1) Twisted pair,

(2) Coaxial cable
(3) Optical fiber
 Twisted Pair

Twisted pair is the least expensive and most widely used

• Consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular
spiral pattern
• A wire pair acts as a single communication link
• Pairs are bundled together into a cable
• Ex: telephone network and communications within
buildings
• Data rates for Ethernet products are typically in the
neighborhood of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps.
• Emerging twisted-pair cabling Ethernet technology can support
data rates of 10Gbps.
 Unshielded and Shielded
Twisted Pair

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

• Consists of one or more twisted-pair cables, typically enclosed
within an overall thermoplastic jacket which provides no
electromagnetic shielding
• Ordinary telephone wire
• Subject to external electromagnetic interference
• The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate
and the greater the cost per meter

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

• Has metal braid or sheathing that reduces interference
• Provides better performance at higher data rates
• More expensive
 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable can be used over longer distances and support more
stations on a shared line than twisted pair
• Consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds
a single inner wire conductor
• Is a versatile transmission medium used in a wide
variety of applications e.g., TV distribution, long distance
telephone transmission and LANs
• Using frequency division multiplexing (FDM), a coaxial cable
 Optical Fiber

A Thin flexible medium capable of guiding an optical ray

• Various glasses and plastics can be used to make optical fibers
• Has a cylindrical shape with three sections
• core (8-62.5 μm) – innermost, consists of thin strands made of glass or plastic
• cladding (125 μm) – glass or plastic coating that surrounds the core to confine light.
• Jacket – Hard plastic coating that protects the glass from moisture and damage
• Widely used in long distance telecommunications
• Performance, price and advantages have made it popular to use
 Optical Fiber - Benefits
• Greater capacity
– Data rates of hundreds of Gbps over tens of kilometers
– Smaller size and lighter weight
– Considerably thinner than coaxial or twisted pair cable
– Reduces structural support requirements

• Lower attenuation
• Electromagnetic isolation
– Not vulnerable to interference, impulse noise, or crosstalk
– High degree of security from eavesdropping

• Greater repeater spacing

– Lower cost and fewer sources of error
 Categories of Application
• Five basic categories of application have become important for optical
fiber:
– Long-haul trunks (i.e. long-distance link)
• Connects all central switches and long-distance switches
• Average 1500 km and 20k to 60k voice channels
– Metropolitan trunks
• Average 12 km and 100k voice channels
– Rural exchange trunks
• Links towns and villages 40km to 160 km and 5k voice channels
– Subscriber loops
• Link between central exchange to a subscriber i.e. home, office, etc.
– Local area networks
• 100 Gbps and 1000s of stations are supported.
Single-mode Transmission - a
single transmission path exists,
the distortion found in
multimode cannot occur; faster

Multimode transmission -
multiple propagation paths exist,
each with a different path
length; slower.

Light from a source enters the

cylindrical glass or plastic core.
Rays at shallow angles are
reflected and propagated along
the fiber; other rays are absorbed
by the surrounding material.
 Wireless Transmission
Frequencies
Three general ranges of frequencies are of interest for wireless
transmission.

• Suitable for omnidirectional applications

• Referred to as the radio range
30MHz to
1GHz

• Referred to as microwave frequencies

• Highly directional beams are possible
• Suitable for point to point transmissions
1GHz to
• Also used for satellite communications
40GHz

• Infrared portion of the spectrum

3 x 1011 to 2 • Useful to local point-to-point and multipoint applications within confined areas
x 1014
 Wireless Communication Model

A simple Model of Wireless Communication System:

• The transmitting Antenna converts Electrical Signals into Radio Signals
• The receiving Antenna converts Radio Signals back to Electrical Signals

52
 Radiation Pattern

Direction and propagation of a wave depends on

antenna shape
• Isotropic antenna
• Power propagates in all directions equally (spherical
pattern, ideal)
• Omni-directional antenna
• Power propagates in all directions on one plane
(donut)
• Directional antenna
• Power concentrated in particular direction
 Antenna Gain
A measure of the GdB = 10 log (P2/P1)
directionality of an
antenna
G : Antenna gain,
P1 : Radiated power of the
Power output in Defined as the
Effective area of an
power output in a
directional antenna, and
antenna is related a particular
to the physical size
particular direction P2 : Radiated power from
of the antenna and direction versus that
produced by an the reference antenna.
to its shape VS isotropic antenna
Power produced
by an isotropic For example, if an antenna
antenna. has a gain of 3 dB, that
antenna improves upon the
isotropic antenna in that
The increased direction by 3 dB.
power radiated in a
Measured in
given direction is at
decibels (dB)
the expense of
other directions
 Terrestrial Microwave
Most common type is the
parabolic “dish”

A series of microwave relay

Typical size is about 3 m in
towers is used to achieve long-
diameter
distance transmission

Antenna is fixed rigidly and

focuses a narrow beam to
Usually located at substantial
achieve line-of-sight
heights above ground level
transmission to the receiving
antenna
 Terrestrial Microwave
Applications
• Used for long haul telecommunications service as an
alternative to coaxial cable or optical fiber
• Used for both voice and TV transmission
• Fewer repeaters but requires line-of-sight transmission
• 1-40 GHz frequencies, with higher frequencies having
higher data rates
• Main source of loss is attenuation caused mostly by
distance, rainfall and interference
 Satellite Microwave
• A communication satellite is, in effect, a microwave relay
station
• Used to link two or more ground stations
• Receives transmissions on one frequency band, amplifies or
repeats the signal, and transmits it on another frequency
– Frequency bands are called transponder channels
Two common configurations for satellite
communication:
1.The satellite is being used to provide a point-
to-point link between two distant ground-based
antennas.
2.The satellite provides communications
between one ground-based transmitter and a
number of ground-based receivers.

•Two satellites using the same frequency band,

if close enough together, interfere with each
other.
•To avoid this, current standards require a 4°
spacing (angular displacement as measured
from the earth) in the 4/6-GHz band and a 3°
spacing at 12/14 GHz.
•No# of possible satellites is quite limited.
• Ground wave propagation follows the contour of the earth
and can propagate distances well over the visual horizon
• This effect is found in frequencies up to about 2MHz
• The best known example of ground wave communication
• is AM radio
• Sky wave propagation is used for amateur radio and
international broadcasts such as BBC and Voice of America
• A signal from an earth based antenna is reflected from the ionized
layer of the upper atmosphere back down to earth
• Sky wave signals can travel through a number of hops,
bouncing back and forth between the ionosphere and the earth’s
surface
• Ground and sky wave propagation modes do not operate
above 30MHz - communication must be by line of sight
Thank You