Project Management

Project Management Definition

Project Execution: Implementing the project plan, coordinating
tasks, managing resources, and ensuring effective communication.
Project Monitoring and Control: Tracking project progress, comparing
it against the plan, and taking corrective actions when necessary.
The basics of project management can be described as: “the use
of specific knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to deliver
something of value to people.” There are multiple formal project
management methodologies, including Agile, Waterfall (Predictive),
Scrum, Kanban, Lean, PRINCE2, and Six Sigma.
Project Management
• Effective project management requires a
comprehensive understanding of the four key
elements of project management: scope, time,
cost, and quality. By managing these elements
effectively, you can ensure that your project is
completed on it
Stages of Project Management

• Stages of Project Management

• Project initiation.
• Project planning.
• Project execution.
• Project monitoring and control.
• Project closure.
3 C’s of Project Management
• 3 C’s of Project Management
• The role of project manager, collaboration,
creativity, and change are of the utmost importance. he
project process means a process as a unique action and
represents the whole project implementation and the internal
processes in the project. Work instructions, procedure
methods, network plans and tools are also considered.
• Agile project management is an iterative approach to
managing software development projects that focuses on
continuous releases and incorporating customer feedback
with every iteration
Responsibilities of Project Manager

• Responsibilities of Project Manager

• Software projects are planned, implemented, monitored
and controlled.
• It consists of three terms: Software, Project and
Management. So, let us understand each term separately.
Software includes a set of programs, documentation and user
manual for a particular software project. So, it is basically the
complete procedure of the software development starting from
the requirement gathering phase and extending to testing and
maintenance. Project means a planned activity which consists of
several well defined tasks. Management makes sure that the
product comes out as planned.
Project Planning
Project Planning
• There are many constraints of the software projects but the main and
fundamental constraints includes: Time, Cost and Quality. Any one of
the two factors can severely affect the third one. Therefore, Software
Project Management is essential to develop software projects within
time and the specified budget and that too of good quality.
•
 Project Management
• Proper project management is essential for the successful
completion of a software project and the person who is responsible
for it is called project manager. To do his job effectively, the project
manager must have certain set of skills. This section discusses both
the job responsibilities of project manager and the skills required by
him.

• Managing people:
• Acts as a project leader
• Communication with stakeholders
• Manages human resources
Project Management
• Managing people:
• Acts as a project leader
• Communication with stakeholders
• Manages human resourcesCategorizing Software Projects:

• Compulsory Vs Voluntary systems (projects):

• Compulsory systems are the systems which the staff of an
organisation have to use if they want to do a task.
• Voluntary systems are the systems which are voluntarily
used by the users eg. computer gaming, school project, etc.
 Project Management
• Information Vs Embedded systems (projects):
• Information systems are used by staff to carry out office
processes and tasks eg. stock control system.
• Embedded systems are used to control machines eg. a system
controlling equipment in a building.
• Objective-based Vs Product-based systems (projects):
• Project whose requirement is to meet certain objectives which
could be met in a number of ways, is objective-based project.
• Project whose requirement is to create a product, the details of
which have been specified by the client, is product-based
project.
Project Management
• Team and Timeline Management
• Team Organization
• Technology Integration
• : Leadership
• Performance Tracking and Measurement
 COCOMO Model

• COCOMO Model
• Cocomo (Constructive Cost Model) is a regression
model based on LOC, i.e number of Lines of Code. It is
a procedural cost estimate model for software projects
and is often used as a process of reliably predicting the
various parameters associated with making a project such
as size, effort, cost, time, and quality. It was proposed by
Barry Boehm in 1981 and is based on the study of 63
projects, which makes it one of the best-documented
models.
COCOMO Model
• The key parameters which define the quality of any software products,
which are also an outcome of the Cocomo are primarily Effort &
Schedule:
• Effort: Amount of labor that will be required to complete a task. It is
measured in person-months units.
• Schedule: Simply means the amount of time required for the completion of
the job, which is, of course, proportional to the effort put in. It is measured
in the units of time such as weeks, and months.
• Different models of Cocomo have been proposed to predict the cost
estimation at different levels, based on the amount of accuracy and
correctness required. All of these models can be applied to a variety of
projects, whose characteristics determine the value of the constant to be
used in subsequent calculations.
 Models in Cocomo
• Organic – A software project is said to be an organic type if the team size required is
adequately small, the problem is well understood and has been solved in the past and also
the team members have a nominal experience regarding the problem.
• 2. Semi-detached – A software project is said to be a Semi-detached type if the vital
characteristics such as team size, experience, and knowledge of the various programming
environment lie in between that of organic and Embedded. The projects classified as Semi-
Detached are comparatively less familiar and difficult to develop compared to the organic
ones and require more experience and better guidance and creativity. Eg: Compilers or
different Embedded Systems can be considered Semi-Detached types.
• 3. Embedded – A software project requiring the highest level of complexity, creativity, and
experience requirement fall under this category. Such software requires a larger team size
than the other two models and also the developers need to be sufficiently experienced and
creative to develop such complex models.
• Basic COCOMO Model
• Intermediate COCOMO Model
• Detailed COCOMO Model
 Basic Model
• Basic Model –
• The formula is used for the cost estimation of for the
basic COCOMO model, and also is used in the subsequent
models. The constant values a,b,c, and d for the Basic Model for
the different categories of the system:
• The effort is measured in Person-Months and as evident
from the formula is dependent on Kilo-Lines of code. The
development time is measured in months. These formulas are
used as such in the Basic Model calculations, as not much
consideration of different factors such as reliability, and
expertise is taken into account, henceforth the estimate is rough
 Intermediate Model

• Intermediate Model
• The basic Cocomo model assumes that the effort is
only a function of the number of lines of code and some
constants evaluated according to the different software
systems. However, in reality, no system’s effort and
schedule can be solely calculated on the basis of Lines of
Code. For that, various other factors such as reliability,
experience, and Capability. These factors are known as Cost
Drivers and the Intermediate Model utilizes 15 such drivers
for cost estimation. Classification of Cost Drivers and their
Attributes:
 Detailed Model –

• Detailed Model –
• Detailed COCOMO incorporates all characteristics of the intermediate
version with an assessment of the cost driver’s impact on each step of the
software engineering process. The detailed model uses different effort multipliers
for each cost driver attribute. In detailed cocomo, the whole software is divided
into different modules and then we apply COCOMO in different modules to
estimate effort and then sum the effort. The Six phases of detailed COCOMO are:
• Planning and requirements
• System design
• Detailed design
• Module code and test
• Integration and test
• Cost Constructive model
 Advantages of the COCOMO model:

• Advantages of the COCOMO model:

• Provides a systematic way to estimate the cost and effort
of a software project.
• Can be used to estimate the cost and effort of a software
project at different stages of the development process.
• Helps in identifying the factors that have the greatest
impact on the cost and effort of a software project.
• Can be used to evaluate the feasibility of a software
project by estimating the cost and effort required to
complete it.
 Disadvantages of the COCOMO model:

• Disadvantages of the COCOMO model:

• Assumes that the size of the software is the main factor
that determines the cost and effort of a software project,
which may not always be the case.
• Does not take into account the specific characteristics of
the development team, which can have a significant
impact on the cost and effort of a software project.
• Does not provide a precise estimate of the cost and effort
of a software project, as it is based on assumptions and
average
Project Planning

• Project Planning
• Project planning refers to the phase in project management
in which you determine the actual steps to complete a project.
This includes laying out timelines, establishing the budget,
setting milestones, assessing risks, and solidifying tasks and
assigning them to team members.1
• Project planning is a crucial part of project management
focused on creating a detailed plan that outlines the steps and
resources necessary to achieve the project's objectives,
including identifying the project's scope, establishing a timeline,
assigning tasks and resources, and budgeting for the project.
 7 Steps in Project Planning

• 7 Steps in Project Planning

• Step 1: Define your goals and objectives.
• Step 2: Set success metrics.
• Step 3: Clarify stakeholders and roles.
• Step 4: Set your budget.
• Step 5: Align on milestones, deliverables, and project
dependencies
• Step 6: Outline your timeline and schedule.
• Step 7: Share your communication plan
stages of the project life cycle
•five stages of the project life cycle?
•Initiating.
•Planning.
•Executing.
•Monitoring/controlling.
•Closing.
•
Software Project Planning

• Software Project Planning

• A Software Project is the complete
methodology of programming advancement
from requirement gathering to testing and
support, completed by the execution
procedures, in a specified period to achieve
intended software product.
Need of Software Project Management

• Need of Software Project Management

• Software development is a sort of all new
streams in world business, and there's next
to no involvement in structure programming
items. Most programming items are
customized to accommodate customer's
necessities.
Software Project Manager

• Software Project Manager

• Software manager is responsible for planning and
scheduling project development. They manage the
work to ensure that it is completed to the required
standard. They monitor the progress to check that the
event is on time and within budget. The project
planning must incorporate the major issues like size &
cost estimation scheduling, project monitoring,
personnel selection evaluation & risk management. To
plan a successful software project, we must
understand:
Software Project Manager
Project Management
• The size is the crucial parameter for the
estimation of other activities. Resources
requirement are required based on cost and
development time. Project schedule may prove to
be very useful for controlling and monitoring the
progress of the project. This is dependent on
resources & development time.
•
 Advantages of SW Planning
• Project size Matrices estimation
• Project size estimation is a crucial aspect of software
engineering, as it helps in planning and allocating resources for
the project. Here are some of the popular project size
estimation techniques used in software engineering:
• Expert Judgment:
• In this technique, a group of experts in the relevant field
estimates the project size based on their experience and expertise.
This technique is often used when there is limited information
available about the project.
Advantages of SW Planning
• Analogous Estimation:
• This technique involves estimating the project size based on the
similarities between the current project and previously completed
projects. This technique is useful when historical data is available for
similar projects.
• Bottom-up Estimation:
• In this technique, the project is divided into smaller modules or
tasks, and each task is estimated separately. The estimates are then
aggregated to arrive at the overall project estimate.
• Three-point Estimation:
• This technique involves estimating the project size using three
values: optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely. These values are then
used to calculate the expected project size using a formula such as the
PERT formula.
Advantages of SW Planning
• Function Points:
This technique involves estimating the project size based on the
functionality provided by the software. Function points consider
factors such as inputs, outputs, inquiries, and files to arrive at the
project size estimate.
• Use Case Points:
• This technique involves estimating the project size based on the
number of use cases that the software must support. Use case points
consider factors such as the complexity of each use case, the number
of actors involved, and the number of use cases.
• Each of these techniques has its strengths and weaknesses, and the
choice of technique depends on various factors such as the project’s
complexity, available data, and the expertise of the team.
Metrics in Project Management
• Various measures are used in project size estimation.
Some of these are:
• Lines of Code
• Number of entities in ER diagram
• Total number of processes in detailed data flow
diagram
• Function points
 Lines of Code (LOC):
• Lines of Code (LOC): As the name suggests, LOC counts the total number
of lines of source code in a project. The units of LOC are:
• KLOC- Thousand lines of code
• NLOC- Non-comment lines of code
• KDSI- Thousands of delivered source instruction
• The size is estimated by comparing it with the existing systems of the same
kind. The experts use it to predict the required size of various components of
software and then add them to get the total size.
• It’s tough to estimate LOC by analyzing the problem definition. Only
after the whole code has been developed can accurate LOC be estimated.
This statistic is of little utility to project managers because project planning
must be completed before development activity can begin.
 COCOMO Model
• Total number of processes in detailed data flow diagram: Data Flow
Diagram(DFD) represents the functional view of software. The model depicts the
main processes/functions involved in software and the flow of data between them.
Utilization of the number of functions in DFD to predict software size. Already
existing processes of similar type are studied and used to estimate the size of the
process. Sum of the estimated size of each process gives the final estimated size.
• Advantages:
• It is independent of the programming language.
• Each major process can be decomposed into smaller processes. This will increase
the accuracy of the estimation
• Disadvantages:
• Studying similar kinds of processes to estimate size takes additional time and
effort.
• All software projects are not required for the construction of DFD.
COCOMO Model
• Advantages:
• Size estimation can be done during the initial stages of
planning.
• The number of entities is independent of the programming
technologies used.
• Disadvantages:
• No fixed standards exist. Some entities contribute more to
project size than others.
• Just like FPA, it is less used in the cost estimation model.
Hence, it must be converted to LOC.
Project size estimation
• Project size Matrices estimation
• Project size estimation is a crucial aspect
of software engineering, as it helps in
planning and allocating resources for the
project. Here are some of the popular
project size estimation techniques used in
software engineering:
Project size estimation
• Expert Judgment:
• In this technique, a group of experts in the
relevant field estimates the project size based on their
experience and expertise. This technique is often used
when there is limited information available about the
project.
• Analogous Estimation:
• This technique involves estimating the project
size based on the similarities between the current
project and previously completed projects. This
technique is useful when historical data is available for
Project size estimation
• Bottom-up Estimation:
• In this technique, the project is divided into
smaller modules or tasks, and each task is estimated
separately. The estimates are then aggregated to arrive
at the overall project estimate.
• Three-point Estimation:
• This technique involves estimating the project
size using three values: optimistic, pessimistic, and
most likely. These values are then used to calculate the
expected project size using a formula such as the
PERT formula.
Project size estimation
• Function Points:
This technique involves estimating the project size
based on the functionality provided by the software. Function
points consider factors such as inputs, outputs, inquiries, and
files to arrive at the project size estimate.
• Use Case Points:
• This technique involves estimating the project size
based on the number of use cases that the software must
support. Use case points consider factors such as the
complexity of each use case, the number of actors involved,
and the number of use cases.
 Estimation of the size of the software
• Estimation of the size of the software is an essential part of
Software Project Management. It helps the project manager
to further predict the effort and time which will be needed to
build the project. Various measures are used in project size
estimation. Some of these are:
• Lines of Code
• Number of entities in ER diagram
• Total number of processes in detailed data flow diagram
• Function points
 Lines of Code (LOC):
• Lines of Code (LOC): As the name suggests, LOC
counts the total number of lines of source code in a
project. The units of LOC are:
• KLOC- Thousand lines of code
• NLOC- Non-comment lines of code
• KDSI- Thousands of delivered source instruction
• The size is estimated by comparing it with the existing
systems of the same kind. The experts use it to predict
the required size of various components of software and
then add them to get the total size.
Lines of Code (LOC):
• Advantages:
• Universally accepted and is used in many models like
COCOMO.
• Estimation is closer to the developer’s perspective.
• Both people throughout the world utilize and accept it.
• At project completion, LOC is easily quantified.
• It has a specific connection to the result.
• Simple to use.
 Lines of Code (LOC):
• Disadvantages:
• Different programming languages contain a different number of lines.
• No proper industry standard exists for this technique.
• It is difficult to estimate the size using this technique in the early stages of the
project.
• When platforms and languages are different, LOC cannot be used to
normalize.
• 2. Number of entities in ER diagram: ER model provides a static view of
the project. It describes the entities and their relationships. The number of
entities in ER model can be used to measure the estimation of the size of the
project. The number of entities depends on the size of the project. This is
because more entities needed more classes/structures thus leading to more
coding.
Estimation of the size of the software
• 2. Number of entities in ER diagram: ER model provides a
static view of the project. It describes the entities and their
relationships. The number of entities in ER model can be
used to measure the estimation of the size of the project. The
number of entities depends on the size of the project. This is
because more entities needed more classes/structures thus
leading to more coding.
• Advantages:
• Size estimation can be done during the initial stages of
planning.
• The number of entities is independent of the programming
technologies used.
Estimation of the size of the software
• Disadvantages:
• No fixed standards exist. Some entities
contribute more to project size than others.
• Just like FPA, it is less used in the cost
estimation model. Hence, it must be
converted to LOC.
 Total number of processes in detailed data flow diagram
• Total number of processes in detailed data flow diagram: Data
Flow Diagram(DFD) represents the functional view of software.
The model depicts the main processes/functions involved in
software and the flow of data between them. Utilization of the
number of functions in DFD to predict software size. Already
existing processes of similar type are studied and used to estimate
the size of the process. Sum of the estimated size of each process
gives the final estimated size.
• Advantages:
• It is independent of the programming language.
• Each major process can be decomposed into smaller processes. This
will increase the accuracy of the estimation
Total number of processes in detailed data flow
diagram

•Disadvantages:
•Studying similar kinds of processes to
estimate size takes additional time and
effort.
•All software projects are not required for
the construction of DFD.
Total number of processes in detailed data flow
diagram

• Disadvantages:
• Studying similar kinds of processes to
estimate size takes additional time and
effort.
• All software projects are not required for the
construction of DFD.
 Function Point Analysis
• Function Point Analysis:
• In this method, the number and type of functions supported by the
software are utilized to find FPC(function point count). The steps
in function point analysis are:
• Count the number of functions of each proposed type.
• Compute the Unadjusted Function Points(UFP).
• Find the Total Degree of Influence(TDI).
• Compute Value Adjustment Factor(VAF).
• Find the Function Point Count(FPC).
• The explanation of the above points is given below:
Function Point Analysis
• Function Point Analysis: In this method, the number and type of
functions supported by the software are utilized to find
FPC(function point count). The steps in function point
analysis are:
• Count the number of functions of each proposed type.
• Compute the Unadjusted Function Points(UFP).
• Find the Total Degree of Influence(TDI).
• Compute Value Adjustment Factor(VAF).
• Find the Function Point Count(FPC).
ach of the five function types like simple, average, or complex based on their complexity. Multiply the count of each function type with its weighting factor and find the weighted sum. The weighting f

Function Point Analysis

Function type Simple Average Complex

External Inputs 3 4 6

External Output 4 5 7

External Inquiries 3 4 6

Internal Logical Files 7 10 15

External Interface Files 5 7 10

Function Point Analysis
• Find Total Degree of Influence:
• Use the ’14 general characteristics’ of a system to find
the degree of influence of each of them. The sum of all 14
degrees of influence will give the TDI. The range of TDI is
0 to 70. The 14 general characteristics are: Data
Communications, Distributed Data Processing,
Performance, Heavily Used Configuration, Transaction
Rate, On-Line Data Entry, End-user Efficiency, Online
Update, Complex Processing Reusability, Installation Ease,
Operational Ease, Multiple Sites and Facilit Change.
Each of the above characteristics is evaluated on a scale of
0-5.
Function Point Analysis
• Compute Value Adjustment Factor(VAF): Use the following formula to
calculate VAF
• VAF = (TDI * 0.01) + 0.65
• Find the Function Point Count: Use the following formula to calculate
FPC
• FPC = UFP * VAF
• Lines of Code (LOC): As the name suggests, LOC counts the total number
of lines of source code in a project. The units of LOC are:
• KLOC- Thousand lines of code
• NLOC- Non-comment lines of code
• KDSI- Thousands of delivered source instruction
• The size is estimated by comparing it with the existing systems of the
same kind. The experts use it to predict the required size of various
components of software and then add them to get the total size.
 PERT ( slide no. 37)
• The program evaluation and review technique (PERT) is a statistical tool
used in project management, which was designed to analyze and
represent the tasks involved in completing a given project. PERT network
chart for a seven-month project with five milestones (10 through 50) and
six activities
• The main difference is that PERT is a visual technique. It helps project
managers plan, schedule and control tasks, also referred to as activities.
CPM is a statistical technique, though it's also used to plan, schedule and
control. However, it uses well-defined tasks to do so.
• To perform PERT analysis, you need to provide three estimates of activity
duration: a pessimistic estimate (tp), an optimistic estimate (to), and a
modal estimate (tm). These three estimates are used to obtain a weighted
average that is assumed to be a reasonable estimate of the activity
duration.
 PERT
• Here's how to remember the six in the denominator: instead of the
regular average, with the weighted average, it is like you are adding
M four different times to the sum, but since you have now six terms
to cover in the average, and hence you divide by six.
• Steps in the PERT Planning Process
• Identify the specific activities and milestones.
• Determine the proper sequence of the activities.
• Construct a network diagram.
• Estimate the time required for each activity.
• Determine the critical path.
• Update the PERT chart as the project progresses.
 PERT
• A PERT chart uses circles or rectangles called nodes to
represent project events or milestones. These nodes are
linked by vectors, or lines, that represent various tasks and
their dependencies. 1. A PERT chart allows managers to
evaluate the time and resources necessary to manage a
project
• PERT and Gantt charts enable project managers to track
tasks and project status. PERT charts display tasks in a
network diagram, highlighting dependencies; Gantt charts
show tasks and timelines in a bar graph. Both have a place in
the PMBOK's work breakdown structure (WBS).
 FPA
• FPA is a technique used to measure software requirements
based on the different functions that the requirement can be
split into. Each function is assigned with some points based
on the FPA rules and then these points are summarized using
the FPA formula.
• Term: “Function Point Analysis (FPA)”. It is a method to
measure the size of the functionality of an information
system. The measurement is independent from the
technology. This measurement can be used as a base to
measure productivity, estimate the resources needed, and
control the project.
 FPA

• Function point analysis provides project management with an objective tool

by which project size can be monitored for change, over the project's
lifecycle.
• FPA Uses and Benefits in Project Construction
• Monitoring Functional Creep
• Function point analysis provides project management with an objective tool
by which project size can be monitored for change, over the project’s
lifecycle.
• As new functions are identified, functions are removed or changed during
the project the function point count is updated and the impacted functions
appropriately Flagged. The 10project scope can be easily tracked and
reported at each of the major milestones.
 FPA
• Function Point Analysis allows the project manager to
objectively and quantitatively measure the scope of impact
of a change request and estimate the resulting impact on
project schedule and costs. This immediate feedback to the
user on the impact of the rework allows them to evaluate and
prioritise change requests.
• The cost of rework is often hidden in the overall project
costs and users and developers have no means to quantify its
impact on the overall project productivity rates.
•
 FPA
• If the project size exceeds the limits allowed in the initial
estimates then this will provide an early warning that new
estimates may be necessary or alternatively highlight a need
to review the functionality to be delivered by this release.
• Assessing and Prioritizing Rework
• Function point analysis enables the project manager to
measure the functions that have been reworked due to user-
initiated change requests. The results provide valuable
feedback to the business on the potential cost savings of
committing user resources early in the project to establish an
agreed set of requirements and minimising change during
the project lifecycle.
 Staffing level estimation

• Staffing level estimation

• Estimation in software engineering is a process of
determining the optimal number of resources required to complete
a software project within a specified timeline and budget.
• Staffing deals with the appoint personnel for the position that
is identified by the organizational structure. It involves: Defining
requirement for personnel. Recruiting (identifying, interviewing,
and selecting candidates)
• Parametric estimation: uses mathematical models based on
historical data and relevant parameters to estimate project
timelines, costs, or resource requirements. Expert judgment: project
managers often rely on their team's collective expertise to make
informed, top-down estimates.
 Staffing level estimation
• Estimation in software engineering is a process of determining the
optimal number of resources required to complete a software
project within a specified timeline and budget.
• Staffing deals with the appoint personnel for the position that
is identified by the organizational structure. It involves: Defining
requirement for personnel. Recruiting (identifying, interviewing,
and selecting candidates)
• Parametric estimation: uses mathematical models based on
historical data and relevant parameters to estimate project
timelines, costs, or resource requirements. Expert judgment: project
managers often rely on their team's collective expertise to make
informed, top-down estimates.
 Staffing level estimation
• Estimation in software engineering is a process of determining the
optimal number of resources required to complete a software
project within a specified timeline and budget.
• Staffing deals with the appoint personnel for the position that
is identified by the organizational structure. It involves: Defining
requirement for personnel. Recruiting (identifying, interviewing,
and selecting candidates)
• Parametric estimation: uses mathematical models based on
historical data and relevant parameters to estimate project timelines,
costs, or resource requirements. Expert judgment: project managers
often rely on their team's collective expertise to make informed,
top-down estimates.
 Types of Staffing level estimation
• Pervasive: It is pervasive because staffing is performed by all managers at all
levels and in every department. Continuous Process: Staffing is a continuous
process because it continues throughout the life of the organization. It is
required to meet the growing needs of an organization.
• Analyzing jobs, collecting information about jobs to prepare job descriptions.
Developing compensation & incentive plans. Training & development of
employees for efficient performance & career growth. Maintaining labour
relations & union management relations.
• Time limits, the difficulty of projecting future staffing demands, and
the issue of recruiting and keeping skilled workers are some of the possible
limitations of HR and staffing planning. Other potential limitations include
the inability to foresee future staffing needs.
 Risks of staffing

• Risks of staffing
• Staffing industry, there are four particularly notable categories of risk
— fraud, credit, financial, and, liability risks: Fraud risk refers to employee theft
from a client company, e.g., a temporary employee who inflates their hours for
payroll purposes
•.
• In the SWOT analysis, the company must identify external opportunities in
the staffing area. These opportunities may include emerging technologies, access to
a broader talent pool, or specialized recruitment services tailored to the company's
industry
• Selection is called a negative process in Business as more candidates who
apply for employment are rejected than employed. That is why Selection is called a
negative process.
• Putnam first studied the problem of what should be a proper staffing pattern for
 Staffing Scheduling

• Staff scheduling is the process of organizing the work time of a

company’s workforce in order to best carry out daily business
activities.
• What Are the Steps to Create a Staff Schedule?
• Checking employee availability including vacation requests and
preferences;
• Evaluating organizational needs;
• Building shifts around employee availability, skill, and experience;
• Optimizing labor costs; Communicating the schedule;
• Managing conflicts such as mistakes or shift exchange between
employees.
 Staffing Scheduling

• Due to its unpredictable nature, staff scheduling is a living process. Managers are often
required to go back and forth between the different steps to ensure that both individual
employee and organizational needs are fulfilled as circumstances change.
• Why Is Staff Scheduling Important?
• Staff scheduling is core to running a company. Proper staff scheduling helps ensure that
customers will receive high-quality service at all times. It also helps employees to maintain
a better work-life balance as scheduling in advance helps make plans outside of work.
• Why Use a Staff Scheduling Software?
• Using a staff scheduling software facilitates many tasks related to employee scheduling
such as organizing work shifts, creating and communicating the schedule, and tracking
leave requests. Scheduling software can largely automate such tasks.
• The benefits of using scheduling software include:
• Increasing productivity;
• Limiting scheduling mistakes;
• Improving employee satisfaction.
work schedule
• In simple terms, a work schedule refers to the specific
days and times that your employees are expected to
complete the tasks or duties related to their position of
employment. This schedule includes the specific shift
details, like the days of the week and hours of the day
they are expected to work. This schedule ensures that
your employees and staff know when they need to
work, how long they need to work, the work location,
their duties and roles etc. It makes reference to the
work planning and scheduling process.
 Importance of a work schedule

• Reducing the amount of time you spend on the scheduling process,

allowing you to focus on growing your business.
• Ensuring that your scheduling procedures comply with legal
requirements and regulations outlined by the labour department.
• Enhancing consistency and customer experience, as your employees
know well in advance the days and hours they will be working,
reducing absenteeism and increasing productivity.
• Efficiently determining and managing labour costs by scheduling
employees so that they are not working overtime and that you do not
have too many or too few employees working at the same location
 Different types of work schedules

• Now that we understand the benefits of work schedules, let’s look at the
different types of work schedules. You may be asking, “Why are there
different types of work schedules? The simple answer is that different
industries and businesses have different scheduling and rostering needs. As a
work schedule example, security guards will not work the same amount of
time as a marketing assistant. Different types of schedules are available to
meet different businesses’ needs. The top 6 types of employee work
schedules include:
• Full-time work schedules – with this type of schedule, employees would
work for the same days and hours per week, usually 40 core hours a week.
• Part-time schedules – this schedule offers more flexibility as employees
work less than full-time hours. The employees’ schedules may change from
week to week.
 Types of work schedule
• Fixed schedules – a fixed work schedule lays out a predetermined set of days
and hours that remain the same throughout an employee’s employment.
These hours are usually defined before an employee begins work and can
include both full-time and part-time schedules.
• Flexible work schedules – a flexible schedule allows for a bit more freedom
than fixed schedules, as employees need to work a certain number of hours a
week, but they can do this within their own time frame and not during
specific hours set out by the employer.
• Rotating shift schedules – in this work schedule, employees will work a series
of day and night shifts that the employer decides on. This is a popular work
schedule for hourly workers.
• Split shift work schedules – with this type of work schedule, an employee’s
shift is split into two parts. They will clock in for one shift, clock out, leave and
then clock in for the last shift.
 7 Tips for Employee Scheduling

• 7 Tips for Employee Scheduling

• Now we know what you are thinking, and yes, employee scheduling can
sometimes be a complex task, especially when managing several employees
across locations. Do not panic. 1. Identifying Resources
• Before getting stuck into the task of building out your schedule, make sure you
have a good understanding of the financial and staffing resources at your
disposal. Determine how many hours you can afford to pay your employees for
each week, and outline your wages based on this. This way you will avoid any
potential issues with overtime or costs that weren’t in your initial budget.
• 2. List What Each Shift Needs
• When creating a needs list for each shift, consider the following:
• How will you manage requests for time-off?
7
Tips for Employee Scheduling

• What sort of shift schedule best suits your business needs?

• How flexible can you be with your scheduling?
• Are your teams made up of employees who have different roles? If so,
consider the roles that need to be filled during a shift. For example, a
retail store would need a manager and sales assistants for each shift.
• 3. Collect Shift Preferences
• Being considerate of your employees and their private lives is important.
It shows that you care and respect them as humans and not just staff. That
said, there is an extent to which this should be done, and accommodating
their preferences shouldn’t lead to business compromises.
• We recommend putting out a staff survey to collect preferences. In
addition, those who have worked for you the longest should get first
preference.
 Tips for Employee Scheduling

• 4. Review Past Employee Schedules

• Referring back to previous employee schedules is a great way to identify what works and what
doesn’t. They’re typically a good guide for drawing up a new one. Once you’ve created your new
schedule, compare it with a previous one to see who actually worked each shift. Make adjustments
where necessary.
• 5. Create a Plan for Replacements
• Before sending out your new work schedule, make sure your teams know what the replacement
policy is. For example, when someone is sick, do they need to call in sick and find someone to
cover their shift if they’re unavailable? Do employees need to get management approval before
switching shifts? Set up a written policy and communicate it clearly.
• 6. Use an Employee Shift Scheduling Software
• Are you still setting up your work schedules manually? It’s time to automate this process with a
“schedule maker” or digital schedule system like EasyRoster.
• 7. Ask for Employee Feedback & Input
• Let your employees know that they can expect to receive their draft roster on a specific day. And
that feedback is required by a set time on that day before the final schedule is communicated. Make
it clear that any changes given after that time will not be considered.
Tips for Employee Scheduling

• Align shift planning with your business and

operational requirements
• Monitor demand, historical data and utilise
forecasting
• . Know your staff, their availability and create
open lines of communications
• Utilise the right tools to enhance employee
scheduling and planning
Manual scheduling

• Typically, a manual schedule utilises an excel

spreadsheet to track and manage rostering. Now, this
can work well when there are a small number of
employees that need to be rostered, but when you have
a large number of employees across multiple locations,
the process becomes a lot more complex.
• Employee volume, scheduling complexity,
unpredictability, or the need for workforce analytical
insights, is when the manual scheduling process starts
to fail.
Manual scheduling

• For example, for each pay period, it is necessary to

consider how many resources are needed for each
shift, what positions they should fill and what
qualifications and skills are required.
• Next, you need to cross-check their availability. Once
you get all that done, you need to look at how to
control overtime, insert appropriate breaks, make sure
everything is legally compliant, and that staff have
more or less the same number of shifts.
 Digital Scheduling

• Digital (aka automated) scheduling streamlines and makes the

process efficient, increasing productivity, decreasing frustration, and
improving employee satisfaction which in turn leads to lower staff
turnover.
• Good, automated scheduling systems integrate with the software that
companies are already using and allows for the sharing of
information between departments so that each can use the data stored
in the system to carry out their own processes without needing paper
or getting in touch with the shift scheduler.
• All information is also available in real-time. Once it’s been inputted,
any relevant person from any department can access it immediately,
from anywhere in the world, which also makes the scheduling
process more flexible.
 Cons and Pros of manual staff scheduling

• It’s important to understand that many workforce scheduling tools are

developed by programmers who don’t much understand the various field
service processes, so be sure to look for software that is geared towards your
particular industry, like EasyRoster, which caters specifically to the security,
cleaning, facilities and labour broking industries.
• Cons of manual staff scheduling
• Employee volume, scheduling complexity, unpredictability, or the need for
workforce analytical insights, is when the manual scheduling process starts to
fail.
• Pros of digital staff scheduling
• If some companies were to use a manual approach to scheduling, the result
would be increased expenses, missed opportunities and errors.
 Staffing organization and structuring
•
• Organizational structure and staffing refers to a company, business or
other entity's operations and management. Defining the organizational
structure for a business is a key aspect of small business planning,
including staffing.
• Looking for ways to better organize and lead your team? You may be
surprised to find out that there are many different ways to achieve an
organizational structure that improves team efficiency.
• A team structure defines the relationships between activities,
leadership, and team members. While this may seem simple enough,
team structures can have a huge impact on the distribution of
authority and how teams collaborate and work together on a daily
basis.
 Hierarchical structure

• A hierarchical format is the basis of most organizational charts. A hierarchy is

organized into a pyramid-like structure, with executives, directors, managers,
and employees in order from the highest level to the lowest in the chain. This
is by far the most widely used structure and creates clear boundaries between
team members.
• Many organizations use the traditional hierarchy structure, though there are
many variations you can choose from. These include a process-based and
circular structure, which use a similar hierarchy but are visualized in different
ways.
• The number of layers your structure includes will depend on the size and
complexity of your team. Most organizations have four or more layers, and
visualize the structure in a company-wide org chart.
 Functional structure

• . One of the most widely used team structures, apart from the
hierarchical approach, is the functional organizational
structure. In this approach, teams are grouped based on their
skills and knowledge. These groups are then vertically
structured between each department from the top-down, from
the president to individual team members, and so on.
• Functional structures organize top management—or a type of
single authority—to oversee each department.
• While these teams will vary from company to company, the
point of the functional structure is to allow for specialized
skills and to prepare for organizational growth
Matrix structure

• The matrix structure differs the most from other team

structures as it doesn’t follow the typical hierarchical
model. Instead, this team structure is organized in a
grid format, with team members reporting to more
than one leader. These relationships are commonly
structured as primary and secondary reporting
relationships.
• Matrix organizations use this structure in order to
create a balance between leadership and, ultimately,
the decision-making process.
4. Process-based structure

• A process-based structure emphasizes different

internal processes rather than departments. Similar to
other structures, it’s also organized by hierarchy with
leadership connected to these various processes.
• This type of team structure is preferred by
organizations whose processes take precedence over
individual projects. These may be new processes or
ones your organization has implemented already.
Circular structure

• While visually different, the circular structure

follows a hierarchical organization like most
others.
• Higher-level team members are represented in
the inner circle, and lower-level team members
occupy the outer circles. Executive leadership is
shown in the center of the circle, which
represents the fluid relationship they have with
each department head.
 Flat structure

• Unlike the triangular shape of a traditional org structure, a

flat structure is an interconnected web with multiple flat
levels. These levels include all leadership tiers, from
executives to middle managers and beyond. The difference is
that there is only ever a couple of steps between leadership
and individual teams—unlike a hierarchical approach which
could have many levels in between executives and lower-
level team members.
• The flat structure is great for teams that want to create
centralized or unified networks that link back to common
goals.
five basic techniques of risk management
• There are five basic techniques of risk management:
• Avoidance.
• Retention.
• Spreading.
• Loss Prevention and Reduction.
• Transfer (through Insurance and Contracts)
seven of my favorite risk identification techniques:
• seven of my favorite risk identification techniques:
• Interviews. Select key stakeholders. ...
• Brainstorming. I will not go through the rules of
brainstorming here. ...
• Checklists. ...
• Assumption Analysis. ...
• Cause and Effect Diagrams. ...
• Nominal Group Technique (NGT). ...
• Affinity Diagram.
Four types of risk are:

• The main four types of risk are:

• strategic risk - eg a competitor coming on to the
market.
• compliance and regulatory risk - eg introduction of
new rules or legislation.
• financial risk - eg interest rate rise on your business
loan or a non-paying customer.
• operational risk - eg the breakdown or theft of key
equipment
 Types of Risks
• Pure Risk
• Pure risk refers to risks that are beyond human control and result in a loss or no loss with
no possibility of financial gain. Fires, floods and other natural disasters are categorized
as pure risk, as are unforeseen incidents, such as acts of terrorism or untimely deaths.
• Risk Register
• According to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), a risk register
in IT is “a repository of risk information, including the data understood about risks over
time.” For information technology, those understood risks may include known
vulnerabilities, past cyberattacks, and risk response plans that .
•
• Dynamic Risk’
• Dynamic risks are those that are difficult to predict and can result from organizational
and environmental changes, e.g., slip hazards caused by bad weather or physical danger
from visiting someone's home
 Types of Risks
• Human Risk
• Human risks arise from the four D's: disagreement, divorce, death, or disability of
an essential owner, manager, or employee. It also includes risks related to illness
and high stress and to poor communication and people-management practices.
Humans are not just risk liabilities, however.
• Static Risk
• Static risk factors are factors that do not change or which change in only one
direction. 400. Examples of these risk factors include age, which increases over
time, and past criminal offences, which are fixed.
• Standard Risk
• Definition: Insurance risk that the underwriters of the insurance companies
consider common or normal is called standard risk. The standard risk is
associated with almost all life insurance applicants. Description: Insurance
companies scrutinise every proposal before accepting the risk.
Types of Risks
• Components of Risk
• All forms of risk, whether they are classified as speculative
or hazard risks, comprise common elements. This notion is
illustrated in Figure 2, which highlights the following four
basic components of risk: (1) context, (2) action, (3)
conditions, and (4) consequences.
• Elements of Risk
• There are at least five crucial components that must be
considered when creating a risk management framework.
They include risk identification; risk measurement and
assessment; risk mitigation; risk reporting and monitoring;
and risk governance.
Risk Configuration Management

• CM platforms and practices pose challenges, starting with

adoption and integration. The CM process requires an
organization to identify each element, understand its specific
configuration details, enter those details accurately into a
documentation platform and then manage that data.
•
• Risks of configuration management
• Although the benefits of configuration management can be
compelling, the technology is not perfect. CM platforms and
practices pose challenges, starting with adoption and
integration.
 Risk Configuration Management

• Effective configuration management must be an all-or-nothing

effort. Overlooked hardware and software narrow the view of
CM processes, reducing the IT staff's ability to manage the
environment. One forgotten desktop with an unpatched OS can
expose the entire business to catastrophic security vulnerabilities.
• Data sharing, integrity and protection are also vital. The
configuration of an enterprise IT infrastructure involves sensitive
details, such as a server's IP address. That information must be
kept secure, yet it also must be available to other stakeholders
such as corporate compliance officers who perform audits.
Deciding which stakeholders or staff can access and modify CM
data is a delicate matter.
Configuration Management
• A wide array of tools are available to address CM tasks,
which include:
• Discovery. The tool detects hardware and software present
within the management scope, such as the data center. It
collects relevant information about the CI and enters that
information into a database.
• Configuration states. The tool establishes and enforces
desired configuration states for selected hardware or software
CIs. This is usually accomplished using policies and
automation. Deviations from a desired state (baseline) are
alerted and logged, allowing administrators to investigate and
remediate unauthorized change attempts.
 Configuration Management
• Version control. Tools ensure that specific software versions or
components are deployed or built. In software development,
version control ensures that a build is assembled from specific
components.
• Change control. The tool controls the configuration and
implements a process that coordinates, authorizes, documents
and reports authorized changes within the management scope.
• Auditing. The tool scans the environment, validates that current
configurations are in place, identifies and reports any
dependencies and ensures that the overall environment is
configured as expected.
 Features and attributes to consider
•:
• Flexibility. The tool should be easy to use, extensible and easily integrated
with other tools, such as those used for systems management or the help
desk. A tool that's flexible can discover and manage more than one that isn't,
and this should result in an organization needing to deploy a small number of
CM tools.
• Comprehensive reporting. Activity logging and reporting enables
administrators and auditors to gather a complete picture of the environment
and any changes made to it.
• Collaboration and communication. The tool should bring configuration
management together with other management functions so that
administrators are notified of change requests, change attempts and
completed changes -- especially changes impacting security or compliance.
 Features and attributes to consider

• Scalability and extensibility. Simple tools should be adequate for

small to mid-sized organizations. Larger organizations, however, will
need sophisticated tools that support complex and expanding
environments.
• Cloud support. The management scope of the CM process is
growing. Environments can be heterogeneous or homogeneous.
Single data centers are now often complemented by secondary data
centers, private cloud deployments and public cloud infrastructures.
Tools must be able to operate across multiple environments.
• Cost. Tools can be expensive, but the cost is readily justified by the
risks that a tool mitigates.
 Miscellaneous Plan

• Configuration Management Plan. Validation and Verification. System

Testing Plan. Delivery, Installation, and Maintenance Plan.
• Before starting a software project, it is essential to determine the tasks to
be performed and properly manage allocation of tasks among individuals
involved in the software development. Hence, planning is important as it
results in effective software development.
• Project planning is an organized and integrated management process,
which focuses on activities required for successful completion of the
project. It prevents obstacles that arise in the project such as changes in
projects or organization’s objectives, non-availability of resources, and so
on. Project planning also helps in better utilization of resources and
optimal usage of the allotted time for a project.
Miscellaneous Plan

• It defines the roles and responsibilities of the

project management team members.
• It ensures that the project management team
works according to the business objectives.
• It checks feasibility of the schedule and user
requirements.
• It determines project constraints.
 Principles of Risk Management

• Planning is necessary: Planning should be done before a project

begins. For effective planning, objectives and schedules should be
clear and understandable.
• Risk analysis: Before starting the project, senior management and
the project management team should consider the risks that may
affect the project. For example, the user may desire changes in
requirements while the project is in progress. In such a case, the
estimation of time and cost should be done according to those
requirements (new requirements).
• Tracking of project plan: Once the project plan is prepared, it
should be tracked and modified accordingly
 Principles of Risk Management

• Meet quality standards and produce quality

deliverables: The project plan should identify processes
by which the project management team can ensure quality
in software. Based on the process selected for ensuring
quality, the time and cost for the project is estimated.
• Description of flexibility to accommodate
changes: The result of project planning is recorded in the
form of a project plan, which should allow new changes
to be accommodated when the project is in progress.
 Project Planning Process

• The project planning process involves a set of interrelated activities

followed in an orderly manner to implement user requirements in
software and includes the description of a series of project planning
activities and individual(s) responsible for performing these activities.
In addition, the project planning process comprises the following.
• Objectives and scope of the project
• Techniques used to perform project planning
• Effort (in time) of individuals involved in project
• Project schedule and milestones
• Resources required for the project
• Risks associated with the project.
Project Planning Process

• Identification of project requirements: Before starting a project, it is

essential to identify the project requirements as identification of project
requirements helps in performing the activities in a systematic manner. These
requirements comprise information such as project scope, data and
functionality required in the software, and roles of the project management
team members.
• Identification of cost estimates: Along with the estimation of effort and time,
it is necessary to estimate the cost that is to be incurred on a project. The cost
estimation includes the cost of hardware, network connections, and the cost
required for the maintenance of hardware components. In addition, cost is
estimated for the individuals involved in the project.
• Identification of risks: Risks are unexpected events that have an adverse
effect on the project. Software project involves several risks (like technical
risks and business risks) that affect the project schedule and increase the cost
of the project. Identifying risks before a project begins helps in understanding
their probable extent of impact on the project.
 Project Planning Process

• Identification of critical success factors: For making a project successful,

critical success factors are followed. These factors refer to the conditions
that ensure greater chances of success of a project. Generally, these factors
include support from management, appropriate budget, appropriate
schedule, and skilled software engineers.
• Preparation of project charter: A project charter provides a brief
description of the project scope, quality, time, cost, and resource constraints
as described during project planning. It is prepared by the management for
approval from the sponsor of the project.
• Preparation of project plan: A project plan provides information about the
resources that are available for the project, individuals involved in the
project, and the schedule according to which the project is to be carried out.
• Commencement of the project: Once the project planning is complete and
resources are assigned to team members, the software project commences.
 Project Planning Process

• Atypical project plan is divided into the following sections.

• Introduction: Describes the objectives of the project and provides information about
the constraints that affect the software project.
• Project organization: Describes the responsibilities assigned to the project
management team members for completing the project.
• Risk analysis: Describes the risks that can possibly arise during software
development as well as explains how to assess and reduce the effect of risks.
• Resource requirements: Specifies the hardware and software required to carry out
the software project. Cost estimation is done according to these resource
requirements.
• Workbreakdown: Describes the activities into which the project is divided. It also
describes the milestones and deliverables of the project activities.
• Project schedule: Specifies the dependencies of activities on each other. Based on
this, the time required by the project management team members to complete the
project activities is estimated
 Quality Assurance Plan

• The quality assurance plan describes the strategies and methods that
are to be followed to accomplish the following objectives.
• Ensure that the project is managed, developed, and implemented in
an organized way.
• Ensure that project deliverables are of acceptable quality before
they are delivered to the user.
• Verification and Validation Plan
•
• The verification and validation plan describes the approach,
resources and schedule used for system validation
 Quality Assurance
• General information: Provides description of the
purpose, scope, system overview, project references,
acronyms and abbreviations, and points of contact.
Purpose describes the procedure to verify and validate
the components of the system.
•. Reviews and walkthroughs: Provides information
about the schedule and procedures. Schedule describes
the end date of milestones of the project. Procedures
describe the tasks associated with reviews and
walkthroughs. Each team member reviews the document
for errors and consistency with the project requirements
 Quality Assurance
• System test plan and procedures: Provides information
about the system test strategy, database integration, and
platform system integration. System test strategy provides an
overview of the components required for integration of the
database and ensures that the application runs on at least two
specific platforms.
• Acceptance test and preparation for delivery: Provides
information about procedure, acceptance criteria, and
installation procedure. Procedure describes how acceptance
testing is to be performed on the software to verify its
usability as required