STEADY-STATE POWER ANALYSIS

LEARNING GOALS
Instantaneous Power
For the special case of steady state sinusoidal signals

Average Power
Power absorbed or supplied during one cycle

Maximum Average Power Transfer

When the circuit is in sinusoidal steady state

Effective or RMS Values

For the case of sinusoidal signals

Power Factor
A measure of the angle between current and voltage phasors

Complex
Power Power
Factor Correction
Measure
How toofimprove
power using
powerphasors
transfer to a load by “aligning” phasors

Single Phase Three-Wire Circuits

Typical distribution method for households and small loads
INSTANTANEOUS POWER LEARNING EXAMPLE

Instantane ous Assume : v (t )  4 cos( t  60),

Power Supplied Z  230
to Impedance Find : i (t ), p(t )
V 460
p( t )  v ( t ) i ( t ) I   230( A)
Z 230
i (t )  2 cos( t  30)( A)
VM  4, v  60
In steady State I M  2, i  30
v (t )  VM cos( t   v )
p(t )  4 cos 30  4 cos(2 t  90)
i (t )  I M cos( t   i )
p(t )  VM I M cos( t   v ) cos( t   i )
1
cos1 cos2  cos(1  2 )  cos(1  2 )
2
V I
p(t )  M M cos( v   i )  cos(2 t   v   i )
2
constant Twice the
frequency
AVERAGE POWER LEARNING EXAMPLE Find the average
For sinusoidal (and other periodic signals) power absorbed
we compute averages over one period  by impedance

1
t 0 T
2 VR
P
T  p(t )dt T
 
t0

VM I M
p( t )  cos( v   i )  cos(2 t   v   i )
2
V I 1060 1060
P  M M cos( v   i ) It does not matter I   3.5315( A)
2 who leads 2  j 2 2 245
VM  10, I M  3.53, v  60, i  15
If voltage and current are in phase
1
 v   i  P  VM I M Purely P  35.3 cos(45)  12.5W
2 resistive
Since inductor does not absorb power
If voltage and current are in quadrature one can use voltages and currents across
the resistive part
 v   i  90  P  0 Purely
inductive or 2
VR  1060  7.0615(V )
capacitive 2  j2
1
P  7.06  3.53W
2
LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine the average power absorbed by each resistor,
the total average power absorbed and the average power
supplied by the source

Inductors and capacitors do not absorb

power in the average
Ptotal  18  28.7W

Psupplied  Pabsorbed  Psupplied  46.7W

Verification
I  I1  I 2  345  5.3671.57
If voltage and current are in phase
1 1 2 2 I  8.1562.10( A)
 v   i  P  VM I M  RI1M  1 V M
2 2 2 R VM I M
1245 P cos( v   i )
I1   345( A) 2
4 1
Psupplied  12  8.15  cos(45  62.10)
1 2
P4  12  3  18W
2
1245 1245
I2    5.3671.57( A)
2  j1 5  26.37
1
P2   2  5.362 (W )  28.7W
2
LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine average power absorbed or supplied by each
element
1230  60 10.39  j 6  6
I3    6  j 4.39
j1 j
 7.43  36.19( A)
1
P60   6  7.43 cos(0  36.19)  18W
2
Passive sign convention
1230
I2   630( A) I1  I 2  I 3  5.20  j 3  6  j 4.39  11 .2  j1.39( A)
2
 11 .28  7.07
1 2 1
P2  RI M   2  62  36(W ) 1
2 2 P1230   12  11 .28  cos(30  7.07)
2
Pj1  0  54(W )  36  18
To determine power absorbed/supplied
by sources we need the currents I1, I2

Average Power For resistors

1 1 1 V 2
P  VM I M cos( v   i ) P  RI  2 M
2 2
M
2 R
 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER
ZTH  RTH  jX TH
1 | Z L || VOC |2 RL
PL 
2 | Z L  ZTH |2 RL2  X L2

Z L  ZTH  ( RL  RTH )  j ( X L  X TH )
| Z L  ZTH |2  ( RL  RTH ) 2  ( X L  X TH ) 2

Z L  RL  jX L
1 | VOC |2 RL
1 PL 
PL  VLM I LM cos(VL   I L ) 2 ( RL  RTH ) 2  ( X L  X TH ) 2
2
PL 
1  0
 | VL || I L | cos(VL   I L ) X L   X L   X TH
2
PL  
VL 
ZL
VOC | VL | ZL  0   RL  RTH
| VOC | RL 
Z L  ZTH Z L  ZTH
VL  I L  VL  Z L |V |  Z Lopt  ZTH
*

IL  | I L | L
Z L  V   I  Z L | ZL | 1  | VOC |2 
L L PLmax   
2  4 RTH 
Z L  RL  jX L  tan(Z L )  X L
RL
1 RL
cos   cos(VL   I L ) 
1  tan 2  RL2  X L2
LEARNING EXAMPLE Find Z L for maximum average power transfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load

1  | VOC |2 
 Z Lopt  *
ZTH PLmax   
2  4 RTH 

Remove the load and determine the Thevenin equivalent of remaining circuit

8  j 4 (8  j 4)(6  j1) 52  j16

ZTH  4 || (2  j1)    
6  j1 37 37
8  j 4 8.9426.57
   1.4716.93
6  j1 6.089.64
Z L*  1.47  16.93  1.41  j 0.43

2 320
I1 VOC  4  40   5.26  9.64
6  j1 6.089.64

1 5.262
PLmax    2.45(W )
2 4  1.41
We are asked for the value of the
power. We need the Thevenin voltage
LEARNING EXAMPLE Find Z L for maximum average power transfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load

1  | VOC |2 
 Z Lopt  *
ZTH PLmax   
2  4 RTH 

Circuit with dependent sources!

VOC
ZTH 
I SC

40  V x'  (2  j 4) I1
KVL V X'  2 I1
40  (4  j 4) I1  (4 245) I1
40
I1   0.707  45( A)
4 245
KVL
VOC  2 I1  40  1  j1  4  3  j1  10  161.5
Next: the short circuit current ...
LEARNING EXAMPLE (continued)... 1  | VOC |2 
 Z Lopt  *
ZTH PLmax   
2  4 RTH 
Original circuit LOOP EQUATIONS FOR SHORT
CIRCUIT CURRENT
 V x"  j 4 I  2( I  I SC )  4  0
40  2( I SC  I )  j 2 I SC  0
CONTROLLING VARIABLE
V x"  2( I SC  I )
Substitute and rearrange

(4  j 4) I  4 I SC  4
 2 I  (2  j 2) I SC  4  I  (1  j1) I SC  2

4(1  j )(1  j ) I SC  2  4 I SC  4
I SC  1  j 2( A)  5  116 .57
VOC  2 I1  40  1  j1  4  3  j1  10  161.57
ZTH  2  45  1  j1  Z Lopt  1  j1

1 ( 10 ) 2
PLmax    1.25(W )
2 4
 EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUES

i (t ) Instantane ous power If the current is sinusoidal the average

power is known to be P  1 I 2 R
p( t )  i 2 ( t ) R av
2
M

1 2
R 2
 I eff  IM
2
For a sinusoidal signal
The effective value is the equivalent DC x (t )  X M cos( t   )
value that supplies the same average power the effective value is
X
X eff  M
If current is periodic with period T 2
1
t 0 T  1 t 0 T 2 
Pav 
T  p(t )dt  R T  i (t )dt 

For sinusoidal case P 
1
VM I M cos( v   i )
t0  t0  av
2
I : P  Pdc
If current is DC (i (t )  I dc ) then eff av Pav  Veff I eff cos( v   i )
2
Pdc  RI dc
effective  rms (root mean square)
t 0 T t 0 T
1 1
i
2
 (t )dt I eff  (t )dt
2 2
I eff  i
T t0
T t0

Definition is valid for ANY periodic

signal with period T
LEARNING EXAMPLE Compute the rms value of the voltage waveform

t 0 T
T 3 1
x
2
X rms  (t )dt
T t0

One period The two integrals have the

same value
 4t 0  t  1

v (t )   0 1 t  2
  4( t  2 ) 2  t  3

T 1 3

v (t )dt   (4t ) dt   (4(t  2))2 dt

2 2

0 0 2
3 1
16 3  32

2
v ( t ) dt  2   3 t   3
0 0

1 32
Vrms    1.89(V )
3 3
LEARNING EXAMPLE Compute the rms value of the voltage waveform and use it to
determine the average power supplied to the resistor

T  4( s ) i (t )
R  2

R
t 0 T
1
x
2
2
i (t )  16; 0  t  4 X rms  (t )dt
T t0
I rms  4( A)

2
Pav  RI rms  32(W )
 THE POWER FACTOR


I M  i V
Z L V  z
M v
I

v
i
V  ZI  V  Z  I
v   z  i
1 Papparent  Vrms I rms
P  VM I M cos( v   i )  Vrms I rms cos( v   i )
2
P
pf   cos( v   i )  cos z P  Vrms  I rms  pf I
Papparent 0   z  90
current leads
pf z
(capacitiv e)
0  90 pure capacitive
0  pf  1  90   z  0 leading or capacitive
1 0 resistive V
 90   z  0
0  pf  1 0   z  90 lagging or inductive current lags
0 90 pure inductive (inductive )
 LEARNING EXAMPLE Find the power supplied by the power company.
Determine how it changes if the power factor is changed to 0.9
P  Vrms  I rms  pf

 cos z  0.707   z  45

Current lags the voltage

Power company 480(V )rms

88  103 (W )
I rms   259.3( A) rms
480  0.707
2
Plosses  I rms R  259.33  0.08  5.378kW 259.3  45( A)rms
VSrms  0.08 I rms  VL
PS  Plosses  88,000(W )  93.378(kW )
 0.08  259.3  45  480
VSrms  0.08  (183.4  j183.4)  480
If pf=0.9
 494.7  j14.7  495  1.7(V )
88,000
I rms   203.7( A)rms If pf=0.9
480  0.9
2
I rms  203.7  25.8
Plosses  I rms R  3.32kW
VS  14.47  j 7.09  480  494  0.82
Losses can be reduced by 2kW!
Examine also the generated voltage
LEARNING EXTENSION
PL  100kW ,VL  480(V )rms , pf  0.707
P  Vrms  I rms  pf
Rline  0.1
Determine the power savings if the power factor can be increased to 0.94
P
I rms 
Vrms  pf
2 P 2 Rline 1
Plosses  I rms 
Rline 2

Vrms pf 2
1010  0.1 1
Plosses ( pf  0.707)  2
 2
(W )
480 0.707
 2  4.34kW
1010  0.1 1
Plosses ( pf  0.94)   (W )
4802 0.942
 1.13  4.34kW

Psaved  0.87  4.34kW  3.77 kW

Definition of Complex Power COMPLEX POWER
*
S  Vrms I rms
The units of apparent
and reactive power are inductive
Volt-Ampere

| S | Vrms I ms
S  Vrms  v   I rms  i * | S | P  pf
capacitive
S  Vrms I rms  v   i
S  Vrms I rms cos( v   i )  j Vrms I rms sin( v   i ) Another useful form
*
Vrms  ZI rms  S  ( ZI rms ) I rms  Z | I rms |2
P Q
Active Power  P  R | I rms |2
Reactive Power Z  R  jX   2
Q  X | I rms |
ANALYSIS OF BASIC COMPONENTS
RESISTORS

 Q0

INDUCTORS

CAPACITORS

Supplies reactive power!!

WARNING  IF X  0
 LEARNING EXAMPLE
Given :
PL  20kW , pf  0.8 lagging ,VL  2200rms , Z L  0.09  j 0.3, f  60 Hz

Determine the voltage and power factor at the input to the line

inductive
inductive

P  Re{S} | S | cos( v   i ) | S |  pf

|S| = P/pf = 20Kw/0.8 = 25 KVA capacitive

Q 2  S L  P 2  Q  15kVA S L  20  j15(kVA )  2536.87

2

S L  VL I L* VS  248.63  j 21.14  249.534.86

* *
 S   25,00036.87  VS
 IL   L      113 .64  36.86( A) 4.86
VL   2200 
* IL  36.86
 20,000  j15,000 
IL     90.91  j 68.18( A)
 220  pf source  cos(41.72)  0.746
VS  (0.09  j 0.3) I L  2200 lagging
VS  (0.09  j 0.3)(90.91  j 68.18)  220(V )
LEARNING EXAMPLE Compute the average power flow between networks
Determine which is the source
j1

V A  12030(V )rms VB  1200(V )rms

V A  VB 12030  1200
I 
Z j1
(103.92  j 60)  120
I  60  j16.08( A)rms
j
I  62.1215( A)rms
S A  V A ( I )*  12030  62.12  195  7,454  165VArms Passive sign convention.
Power received by A
PA  7,454 cos(165)  7,200(W )
S B  VB ( I )*  1200  62.12  15  7,454  15VArms
PB  7,454 cos(15)  7,200(W )

A supplies 7.2kW average power to B

 LEARNING EXTENSION Determine real and reactive power losses and
real and reactive power supplied
0.1 j 0.25
inductive

40kW
pf  0.84 lagging

P  Re{S} | S | cos( v   i ) | S |  pf
P 40 capacitive
| S L |   47.62kVA | QL | | S L |2  P 2  25,839(VA )
pf .84
|S |
S  VI * | I L | L  216.45( A) rms
| VL | I L  216.45  32.86( A) rms
pf  cos( v   i )   v   i  32.86
Slosses  ( Z line I L ) I L*  Z line | I L |2
Slosses  (0.1  j 0.25)(216.45) 2  4,685  j11,713VA
Balance of power
Ssupplied  Slosses  Sload
 4.685  j11 .713  40  j 25.839  44.685  j 37.552kVA
LEARNING EXTENSION Determine line voltage and power factor at the supply end

0.12 j 0.18

60kW
pf  0.85 lagging

P  Re{S} | S | cos( v   i ) | VL |  | I L |  pf
S L  VL I L* P
| I L |  320.86( A) rms
| VL |  pf
 v   i  cos1 ( pf )   v   i  31.79
I L  320.86  31.79( A) rms  272.72  j169.03( A) rms
VS  Zline I L  VL  (0.12  j 0.18)(272.72  j169.03)  220
VS  283.15  j 28.81(V ) rms  284.615.81(V ) rms VS
5.81
The phasor diagram helps in visualizing VL
the relationship between voltage and current IL  31.79

pf source  cos(37.6)  0.792

lagging
 1
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION VL  I capacitor
j C
Without capacitor :
Low power factors increase Sold  Pold  jQold | Sold |  old
losses and are penalized by pf old  cos( old )
energy companies Qcapacitor | VL || I capacitor |
With capacitor
Typical industrial loads | VL |2 C
are inductive Snew  S old  Scapacitor
 Pold  jQold  jQcapacitor
| Snew |  new Qold  Qcapacitor
tan new 
pfnew  cos( new ) Pold
1
cos 
1  tan 2 
Simple approach to power factor correction
 LEARNING EXAMPLE Economic Impact of Power Factor Correction

Operating Conditions

Current Monthly Utility Bill

Correcting to pf=0.9

New demand charge

Additional energy charge due to capacitor bank is negligible

Monthly savings are approx $1853 per month! A reasonable capacitor bank should pay
Itself in about a year
 f  60Hz.
LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine the capacitor required to increase the power factor
to 0.95 lagging

Roto-molding 50kW ,VL  2200rms

process pf  0.8 lagging

P  Re{S} | S | cos( v   i ) | S |  pf
P 50
| Sold |   62.5kVA | Qold | | Sold |2  P 2  37.5(kVA ).
pf .80
2
1  pf new Q
cos new  0.95  tan new   0.329  new  Qnew  0.329  P  16.43kVA
pf new P
 Qcapacitor  Qold  Qnew  37.5  16.43  21.07 kVA

Qcapacitor | VL || I capacitor | Qcapacitor 21.07  103

C    0.001156 ( F )  1156  F
| VL |2 C  | VL |2 (220) 2  (2  60)
 LEARNING EXTENSION Determine the capacitor necessary to increase the
power factor to 0.94
PL  100kW ,VL  480(V )rms , pf  0.707
Rline  0.1, f  60 Hz
P  Re{S} | S | cos( v   i ) | S |  pf
P 100
| Sold |   141.44kVA | Qold | | Sold |2  P 2  100.02(kVA ).
pf .707
2
1  pf new Q
cos new  0.94  tan new   0.363  new  Qnew  0.363  P  36.3kVA
pf new P
 Qcapacitor  Qold  Qnew  100.02  36.3  63.72kVA

Qcapacitor | VL || I capacitor | Qcapacitor 63.72  103

C    0.000733( F )  733 F
| VL |2 C  | VL |2
(480)  (2  60)
2
LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine energy use over a 24-hour period and the cost
if the rate is $0.08/kWh
Assume all
resistive Lights on
 1Arms
 30 Arms

P  Vrms I rms

 0.2 Arms

Stereo on

KCL
Energy   p(t )dt  Paverage  Time Outline of
I aA  I L  I R verification
E lights  0.12kW  8 Hr  0.12kW  7 Hr  1.8kWh I bB   I S  I R
E range  7.2kW  (2  1  1) Hr  28.8kWh I nN  I S  I L
E stereo  0.024kW  (5  3) Hr  0.192kWh
Edaily  30.792kWh Cost  $2.46 / day Esupplied   psupplied  Vrms  I rms dt
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

Average effect of 60Hz current from hand to

hand and passing the heart

Required voltage depends on contact, person

and other factors

Ground conductor is not needed for

normal operation
Hence, it is seen that if the equation of the applied voltage is v = Vm sinωt, then equation of the resulting
current in an R-L-C circuit is given by i = Im sin (ωt ± φ).
The + ve sign is to be used when current leads i.e. XC > XL.
The − ve sign is to be used when current lags i.e. when XL > XC.
In general, the current lags or leads the supply voltage by an angle φ such that tan φ = X/R