Chapter-4

Sampling Design
and
Methods of Data
Collection
Sampling Design
CENSUS Vs SAMPLE SURVEY
• All items in any field of inquiry constitute
a ‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’
• Population is the total number of possible
units or elements that are included in the
study.
• A complete usage/enumeration/ of all
items in the ‘population’ is known as a
census inquiry.
Sampling Design
• It can be presumed that in Census inquiry, when all
items are covered, no element of chance is left and
highest accuracy is obtained.
• But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest
element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and
larger as the number of observation increases.
Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of
bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of
sample checks.
• Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of
time, money and energy. Therefore, when the field of
inquiry is large, this method becomes difficult to adopt
because of the resources involved.
Sampling Design
• When field studies are undertaken in practical life,
considerations of time and cost almost invariably lead to a
selection of respondents i.e., selection of only a few items.
• The respondents selected should be as representative of the
total population as possible in order to produce a miniature
cross-section.
• The selected respondents constitute what is technically called
a ‘sample’ and the selection process is called ‘sampling
technique.’ The survey so conducted is known as ‘sample
survey’.
• A sample will be chosen by a researcher on the basis that it is
representative of the population as a whole, that is, the
sample’s main characteristics are similar or identical to those
of the population.
• Samples are selected from a sampling frame, that is, a list of
the population elements.
Sampling Design

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a

sample from a given population. It refers to the
technique or the procedure the researcher would
adopt in selecting items for the sample.
• Sample design may as well lay down the number of
items to be included in the sample i.e., the size of the
sample. Sample design is determined before data are
collected.
• There are many sample designs from which a
researcher can choose. Some designs are relatively
more precise and easier to apply than others.
Researcher must select/prepare a sample design
which should be reliable and appropriate for his/her
research study.
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
While developing a sampling design, the researcher must
pay attention to the following points:
1. Type of universe:
The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly
define the set of objects, technically called the Universe,
to be studied. The universe can be finite or infinite. In
finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case
of an infinite universe the number of items is infinite,
i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of
items. The population of a city, the number of workers in
a factory and the like are examples of finite universes,
whereas the number of stars in the sky, listeners of a
specific radio programme, throwing of a dice etc. are
examples of infinite universes.
2. Sampling unit:
A decision has to be taken concerning a
sampling unit before selecting sample.
Sampling unit may be a geographical one such
as state, district, village, etc., or a construction
unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a
social unit such as family, club, school, etc., or
it may be an individual.
The researcher will have to decide one or more
of such units that he/she has to select for
his/her study.
3. Source list
It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from
which sample is to be drawn. It contains the
names of all items of a universe (in case of
finite universe only). If source list is not
available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a
list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable
and appropriate.
It is extremely important for the source list to be
as representative of the population as possible.
4. Size of sample:
This refers to the number of items to be selected from the
universe to constitute a sample.
The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too
small. It should be optimum. An optimum sample is one
which fulfills the requirements of efficiency,
representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine
the desired precision as also an acceptable confidence level
for the estimate. The size of population variance needs to be
considered as in case of larger variance usually a bigger
sample is needed.
The size of population must be kept in view for this also limits
the sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study
must be kept in view, while deciding the size of the sample.
5. Parameters of interest:
In determining the sample design, one must
consider the question of the specific
population parameters which are of interest.
For instance, we may be interested in estimating
the proportion of persons with some
characteristic in the population, or we may be
interested in knowing some average or the
other measure concerning the population.
6. Budgetary constraint:
Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a
major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size
of the sample but also to the type of sample. This fact
can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
7. Sampling procedure:
Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample
he/she will use i.e., he/she must decide about the
technique to be used in selecting the items for the
sample. In fact, this technique or procedure stands for
the sample design itself.
Obviously, he/she must select that design which, for a
given sample size and for a given cost, has a smaller
sampling error.
Characteristics of a Good Sample Design
Good sample design:-
a) Results in a truly representative sample.
b) Results in a small sampling error.
c) Viable in the context of funds available
for the research study.
d) Controls systematic bias in a better way.
 Causes of Systematic Bias
a. Inappropriate sampling frame
b. Defective measuring device
c. Non-respondents
d. Indeterminacy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals
act differently when kept under observation than what they
do when kept in non-observed situations. For instance, if
workers are aware that somebody is observing them in course
of a work study on the basis of which the average length of
time to complete a task will be determined and accordingly
the quota will be set for piece work, they generally tend to
work slowly in comparison to the speed with which they
work if kept unobserved. Thus, the indeterminacy principle
may also be a cause of a systematic bias.
e. Natural bias in the reporting of data:
Types of Sampling Design
• Sampling technique may be probability
sampling or it may be non-probability
sampling.
• Probability sampling is based on the concept
of random selection, whereas non-probability
sampling is ‘non-random’ sampling.
• Thus, sample designs are basically of two
types viz., non-probability sampling and
probability sampling. We take up these two
designs separately.
Non-Probability Sampling
• It does not afford any basis for estimating the
probability that each item in the population has of
being included in the sample.
• Selection of a samples is made on personal
judgment or suggestion.
• Items for the sample are selected deliberately by
the researcher feeling.
• In such a design, personal element has a great
chance of entering into the selection of the sample.
• Has various names as deliberate sampling,
purposive sampling and judgment sampling.
 Non-Probability Sampling techniques
• Purposive sampling-Here, the researcher deliberately
selects the subjects against one or more trait to give
what is believed to be a representative sample.
• Quota sampling-the researcher non-randomly selects
subjects from identified strata until the planned
number of subjects is reached.
• Convenience or volunteer sampling-Here, the
sample is selected purely on the basis that they are
conveniently available.
• Snowball sampling- With this approach, the
researcher identifies a small number of subjects, who,
in turn, identify others in the population.
Probability sampling
• Also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance
sampling’.
• Under this sampling design, every item of the
universe has an equal chance of inclusion in
the sample.
• It is, so to say, a lottery method in which
individual units are picked up from the whole
group not deliberately but by some mechanical
process. Here it is blind chance alone that
determines whether one item or the other is
selected.
Probability Sampling Techniques
Systematic sampling
• For instance, if a 4 percent sample is desired, the first item
would be selected randomly from the first twenty-five and
thereafter every 25th item would automatically be included
in the sample.
Stratified sampling:
If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not
constitute a homogeneous group, stratified sampling
technique is generally applied in order to obtain a
representative sample. Under stratified sampling the
population is divided into several sub-populations that are
individually more homogeneous than the total population
(the different sub-populations are called ‘strata’) and then
we select items from each stratum to constitute a sample.
The following three questions are highly
relevant in the context of stratified
sampling:
(a) How to form strata?
(b) How should items be selected from
each stratum?
(c) How many items be selected from each
stratum or how to allocate the sample size
of each stratum?
Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
(a) It gives each element in the population an
equal probability of getting into the sample;
and all choices are independent of one another.
(b) It gives each possible sample combination an
equal probability of being chosen.
Multi-stage sampling:
Applies the combination of two or more
sampling techniques discussed above.
 Methods of data collection
• The task of data collection begins after a research
problem has been defined and research design/ plan
chalked out.
• While deciding about the method of data collection to
be used for the study, the researcher should keep in
mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary.
• The primary data are those which are collected afresh
and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in
character.
• The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which
have already been collected by someone else and which
have already been passed through the statistical
process.
COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
We collect primary data during the course of
doing experiments in an experimental research
but in case we do research of the descriptive
type and perform surveys, whether sample
surveys or census surveys, then we can obtain
primary data either through observation or
through direct communication with
respondents in one form or another or through
personal interviews.
Methods of collecting primary data, particularly
in surveys and descriptive researches are:-
– Observation method
– Interview method
– Questionnaires
– Focus group discussion (FGD) etc
 Observation Method
• The observation method is the most commonly used
method specially in studies relating to behavioral
Sciences.
• Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of
data collection for the researcher, when it serves a
formulated research purpose, is systematically planned
and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls
on validity and reliability.
• Under the observation method, the information is sought
by way of investigator’s own direct observation without
asking from the respondent.
• Observation is a complex combination of sensation
(sight, sound, touch, smell and even taste) and
perception.
 Advantage of Observation Method
• Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done
accurately.
• The information obtained under this method relates to
what is currently happening; it is not complicated by
either the past behavior or future intentions or attitudes.
• The method is independent of respondents’ willingness to
respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active
cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be
the case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This
method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with
subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable of giving
verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other
Limitations of Observation Method
• It is an expensive method.
• The information provided by this method is
very limited.
• Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere
with the observational task. At times, the fact
that some people are rarely accessible to direct
observation creates obstacle for this method to
collect data effectively.
Interview Method
• An interview is a conversation between people in
which one person has the role of researcher. Very
often, the interviewer will have on hand a set of
written questions which are posed in a structured
and methodical fashion (a structured interview).
• The interview method of collecting data involves
presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can
be used through personal interviews and, if
possible, through telephone interviews.
Personal interview method requires a
person known as the interviewer asking
questions generally in a face-to-face
contact to the other person or persons.
• The method of collecting information
through personal interviews is usually
carried out in a structured way. As such
we call the interviews as structured
interviews.
Telephone interviews: This method of collecting
information consists in contacting respondents
on telephone itself.
It is not a very widely used method, but plays
important part in industrial surveys,
particularly in developed regions.

Read the advantages and disadvantages of these

Interview means
Questionnaire
• Questionnaires are research tools through which
people are asked to respond to the same set of
questions in a predetermined order. Since
questionnaires are one of the most widely used
primary data gathering techniques, considerable space
will be devoted here to their design and construction.
• A questionnaire consists of a number of questions
printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of
forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who
are expected to read and understand the questions and
write down the reply in the space meant for the
purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents
have to answer the questions on their own.
COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
• Secondary data means data that are already
available i.e., they refer to the data which have
already been collected and analyzed by someone
else.
• When the researcher utilizes secondary data, then
he/she has to look into various sources from
where he/she can obtain them.
• Secondary data may either be published data or
unpublished data and must be used in data
analysis process.
• Best example: Annual Financial Report of entities
Before using secondary data, must see that they
possess following characteristics:
– Reliability of data
– Suitability of data
– Adequacy of data
Researcher must judiciously select the
method/methods, keeping in view the
following factors:
– Nature, scope and object of enquiry
– Availability of funds
– Time factor
– Precision (accuracy) required
The End