RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Respiration:
 The exchange of gases between the atmosphere

blood and cells is called respiration.

Pulmonary ventilation:
 The inspiration and expiration of air between

atmosphere and lungs is called pulmonary

ventilation.
External respiration:
 Exchange of gases between lungs and blood is

called external respiration.

Internal respiration:
 Exchange of gases between blood and cells is called

internal respiration.
Function of respiratory system
• Provides extensive gas exchange surface area
between air and circulating blood
• Moves air to and from exchange surfaces of lungs
• Protects respiratory surfaces from outside
environment
• Produces sounds
• Participates in olfactory sense
 The Respiratory Defense System
 Consists of a series of filtration mechanisms
 Removes particles and pathogens

* Components of the Respiratory Defense

System
 Goblet cells and mucous glands: produce mucus that

bathes exposed surfaces

 Cilia: sweep debris trapped in mucus toward the

pharynx (mucus escalator)

 Filtration in nasal cavity removes large particles

 Alveolar macrophages engulf small particles that reach

lungs
ORGANIZATION OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 ORGANIZATION OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Upper respiratory system
• Nose

• Nasal cavity
Filters, warms & humidifies air
• Paranasal sinuses

• Pharynx

Lower respiratory system

• Larynx

• Trachea

• Bronchi

• Lungs
Figure 23–3
What is the structure of airways outside the lungs?

Anatomy of the Trachea

Figure 23–6
 The Trachea
 Also called the windpipe
 Extends from the cricoid cartilage into
mediastinum
 where it branches into right and left pulmonary
bronchi
Structure:
 Composed of 16-20 incomplete rings of hyaline
cartilages
 Three layers of tissue clothe the cartilage of trachea
1. Outer layer: consists of fibrous and elastic tissue
enclosed the cartilages
2. Middle layer:
Consists of cartilage, bands of smooth muscle, arolar
tissue which contain blood and lymph vessels and
autonomic nerve
3. Inner lining:
Consists of ciliated columnar epithelium containing
mucous secreting goblet cells
Function of trachea:

 Support and patency (open or unblocked)

 Mucociliary escalator

 Cough reflex

 Warming humidifying and filtering of air

Bronchi and smaller air passage
 At the level of the sternal angle, the trachea
bifurcates into two smaller tubes, called the right
and left primary bronchi.
 Each primary bronchus projects laterally toward
each lung.
 The most inferior tracheal cartilage separates the
primary bronchi at their origin and forms an internal
ridge called the carina.
Bronchial tree
 A highly branched system of lungs before
terminating in terminal bronchioles.

 Incomplete rings of hyaline cartilage support the

walls of the primary bronchi to ensure that they
remain open.

 Right primary bronchus is shorter, wider, and more

vertically oriented than the left primary bronchus.

 Foreign particles are more likely to lodge in the right

primary bronchus.
 The primary bronchi enter the hilus of each lung
together with the pulmonary vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and nerves.

 Each primary bronchus branches into several

secondary bronchi (or lobar bronchi).

 The left lung has two secondary bronchi.The right

lung has three secondary bronchi.

 They further divide into tertiary bronchi.

 Each tertiary bronchus is called a segmental bronchus

because it supplies a part of the lung called a
bronchopulmonary segment.
 Secondary bronchi tertiary bronchi
bronchioles terminal bronchioles
 with successive branching amount of cartilage
decreases and amount of smooth muscle increases,
this allows for variation in airway diameter
 during exertion and when sympathetic division active
 bronchodilation
 mediators of allergic reactions like histamine 
bronchoconstriction
 epithelium gradually changes from ciliated
pseudostratified columnar epithelium to simple
cuboidal epithelium in terminal bronchioles
Conduction vs. Respiratory zone

 Most of the tubing in the lungs makes up conduction

zone
 Consists of nasal cavity to terminal bronchioles

 The respiratory zone is where gas is exchanged

 Consists of alveoli, alveolar sacs, alveolar ducts and
respiratory bronchioles
Respiratory Bronchioles, Alveolar
Ducts, and Alveoli
 Lungs contain small saccular outpocketings called
alveoli.
 They have a thin wall specialized to promote
diffusion of gases between the alveolus and the
blood in the pulmonary capillaries.
 Gas exchange can take place in the respiratory
bronchioles and alveolar ducts as well as in the
alveoli, each lung contains approximately 300 to
400 million alveoli.
 The spongy nature of the lung is due to the packing
of millions of alveoli together.
Alveoli
Cells in Alveolus
 Type I cells:
Simple squamous cells forming lining
 Type II cells :
Also called septal cells secrete surfactant.
 Alveolar macrophages
Respiratory membrane:
 squamous cells of alveoli .

 basement membrane of alveoli.

 basement membrane of capillaries

 simple squamous cells of capillaries

 about .5 μ in thickness
Gross Anatomy of the Lungs
 Each lung has a conical shape. Its wide, concave base
rests upon the muscular diaphragm.
 Its superior region called the apex projects superiorly
to a point that is slightly superior and posterior to the
clavicle.
 Both lungs are bordered by the thoracic wall
anteriorly, laterally, and posteriorly, and supported by
the rib cage.
 Toward the midline, the lungs are separated from
each other by the mediastinum.
 The relatively broad, rounded surface in contact with
the thoracic wall is called the costal surface of the
lung.
 The concave surface is called the medial surface of
the lung and is called hilum.
Left lung
 Divided into 2 lobes by oblique fissure

 Smaller than the right lung

 Cardiac notch accommodates the heart

Right
 Divided into 3 lobes by oblique and horizontal

fissure
 Located more superiorly in the body due to liver on

right side
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RIGHT & LEFT LUNGS

RIGHT LUNG LEFT LUNG

• Has 2 fissures, 3 lobes 1. 1 fissure, 2 lobes

• Anterior border straight 2. Anterior border interrupted by cardiac notch
• Larger, heavier (700g) 3. Smaller, lighter (600g)
• Shorter, broader 4. Longer, narrower
Pleura and Pleural Cavities
 The outer surface of each lung and the adjacent

internal thoracic wall are lined by a serous membrane

called pleura.
 The outer surface of each lung is tightly covered by

the visceral pleura.

 while the internal thoracic walls, the lateral surfaces

of the mediastinum, and the superior surface of the

diaphragm are lined by the parietal pleura.
 The parietal and visceral pleural layers are

continuous at the hilus of each lung.

Pleural cavity
Muscle of respiration:
 Expansion of chest occur during inspiration as a result

of muscular activity.
 The main muscle of respiration are intercostal and

diaphragmatic muscles.
Intercostal muscle:
 11 pairs of intercostal muscle occupies space between

12 ribs.
 They are arranged in two layers the external and internal

intercostal.
External intercostal:
Extends downward and forward direction.
Internal intercostal:
Extends downward and backwards direction
Diaphragm:
 It form the floor of thoracic cavity

 When it contract its muscle fibers shorten and central

tendon pulled downward enlarging the thoracic cavity in

length.
Other muscles of respirations are Sternocleidomastoid and
scalene muscle.
Respiratory Cycle
Composition of inspired and expired air

Gases Inspired air % Expired air %

Oxygen 21 16

Carbon dioxide 0.04 4

Nitrogen 78 78

Water vapor Variable Saturated

Diffusion of gases:
 Exchange of gases occur when a difference in

partial pressure exists across semi permeable

membrane
 Gases move by diffusion from higher concentration

to lower concentration until equilibrium is

established
 Partial pressure of gases
Gases Alveolar air Deoxygenated Oxygenated
blood blood
mmHg mmHg mmHg

Oxygen 100 40 100

Carbon 40 44 40
dioxide
Transport of oxygen:
Oxygen is carried in blood
 In chemical combination with hemoglobin as

Oxyhemoglobin 98.5%.
 In solution in plasma water 1.5%.

 Oxyhemoglobin is an unstable compound dissociate

and releasing oxygen.

Factors that increase oxygen dissociation:
 CO2

 Temperature

 2,3 DPG
Transport of Carbon dioxide:
Co2 is transported through by three mechanisms
 In the form of HCO3- ion in plasma (70 %)

 Some is dissolved in plasma (7%)

 Some is carried by RBC ( 23%)

Summary
Respiratory Values
 A normal adult averages 12 breathes per minute =
respiratory rate(RR)
 Respiratory volumes – determined by using a
spirometer
LUNG VOLUMES
 TIDAL VOLUME (TV): Volume inspired or expired with
each normal ﾊ breath. = 500 ml
 INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (IRV): Maximum
volume that can be inspired over the inspiration of a
tidal volume/normal breath. Used during
exercise/exertion.=3000 ml
 EXPIRATRY RESERVE VOLUME (ERV): Maximal
volume that can be expired after the expiration of a
tidal volume/normal breath. = 1100 ml
 RESIDUAL VOLUME (RV): Volume that remains in the
lungs after a maximal expiration. ﾊ CANNOT be
measured by spirometry.= 1200 ml
LUNG CAPACITIES
 INSPIRATORY CAPACITY ( IC): Volume of maximal
inspiration:IRV + TV = 3500 ml
 FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY (FRC): Volume of gas
remaining in lung after normal expiration, cannot be
measured by spirometry because it includes residual
volume:ERV + RV = 2300 ml
 VITAL CAPACITY (VC): Volume of maximal inspiration
and expiration:IRV + TV + ERV = IC + ERV = 4600 ml
 TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY (TLC): The volume of the lung
after maximal inspiration. ﾊ The sum of all four lung
volumes, cannot be measured by spirometry because it
includes residual volume:IRV+ TV + ERV + RV = IC +
FRC = 5800 ml
Pulmonary Volumes
and Capacities
 Terms Used to Describe Lung Volumes and Capacities
Term Definition
Lung Volumes The four nonoverlapping components of the total lung
capacity
Tidal volume The volume of gas inspired or expired in an unforced
respiratory cycle
Inspiratory reserve volume The maximum volume of gas that can be inspired during
forced breathing in addition to tidal volume
Expiratory reserve volume The maximum volume of gas that can be expired during
forced breathing in addition to tidal volume
Residual volume The volume of gas remaining in the lungs after a maximum
expiration
Lung Capacities Measurements that are the sum of two or more lung volumes
Total lung capacity The total amount of gas in the lungs after a maximum
inspiration
Vital capacity The maximum amount of gas that can be expired after a
maximum inspiration
Inspiratory capacity The maximum amount of gas that can be inspired after a
normal tidal expiration
Functional residual capacity The amount of gas remaining in the lungs after a normal
tidal expiration
Regulation of Breathing