Bacon as a Moralist

Bacon is not a true moralist. His morality is a saleable morality. He is a moralist-cum-worldly wise man. Bacon
appears as a moralist in his essays, for he preaches high moral principles and lays down valuable guidelines for
human conduct. Some of his essays show him as a true lover and preacher of high ethical codes and conducts. One
cannot deny the fact that Bacon was a “Man of Renaissance”. He had a deep insight in human nature. He
knew that man is naturally more prone to evil than good. On one hand, he preached high moral principles
and on the other hand, he also expressed a mean capacity by compromising upon those morals for the sake
of worldly success. For this reason, William Blake, a spiritual poet says about his essays: “Good advice for
Satan’s Kingdom.” Blake considers any utilitarian advice contrary to God’s ways, but Bacon does not bother
for that. Bacon discusses man as he “appears” and not as he “ought to appear”. In his essay “Of Great Places”
Bacon certainly shows a high morality when he condemns or at least dislikes the practice of ‘wrongs’ on part of high
officials. “In place there is license to do good and evil; where of the latter is a curse.” Afterwards he appreciates the
power of doing good. “But power to do good, is true and lawful end of aspiring.” But besides these moral
approaches, he also supports the idea of adopting certain disloyal means to reach a high position. “It is good to side a
man’s self whilst he is in the rising and to balance himself when he is placed” Thus, like a moralist, Bacon
preaches the noble dimensions of great place, but with this statement his purely utilitarian approach also comes
forth with all its power. In the essay “Of Truth” he appears to be a ‘genuine’ admirer of truth and seems to install
the love of truth in his readers. “It is heaven upon earth, to have man’s mind move in charity, rest in providence and
turn upon the poles of truth.” But he also points out that “Falsehood is like an ‘alloy’ in gold and silver, which
makes the metal work better even though it reduces, the value of the metal”. He says: “A mixture of a lie
doth ever add pleasure.” By putting this he has diluted all the effect of his own words said in the praise of the truth.
One can find the same strange mixture of high ethics and utilitarianism in the essay “Of Revenge”. In this
essay Bacon condemns revenge by saying: “Revenge is a kind of wild justice.” And “One who studieth revenge,
keeps his own wounds green.” He expressed that there is no place of revenge in high society and it is a high quality
to forgive an enemy. Hereafter, Bacon spoils the effects by putting that in some cases man is justified in taking
revenge, if the avenger can save his skin from the eyes of the law. He says: “But then let a man take heed the
revenge be such as there is now law to punish; else a man’s enemy is still forehand”. “Of Simulation and
Dissimilation” is another example of the strange mixture of morality and prudence. “The best position and
temperature is; to have openness in fame and opinion; secrecy in habits; dissimulation in seasonal use; and power to
feign, if there be no remedy.” Bacon’s morality has also been described as a cynical kind of wisdom. This
impression is confirmed by even those essays which deal with strong private relations between men.
“Of Friendship”, “Of Parents and Children”, “Of Marriage and Single life” and “Of Love”, all depict a
certain kind of utilitarianism and worldly benefit. Here Bacon expresses a definite failure of emotions,
for he takes the pure matters of heart in terms of their uses and abuses. In short, though Bacon’s essays
portray morality and high ethical standards, yet he does not appear as an ideal moralist and these are but the
“flashes of morality”. He is not a true moralist.

Bacon’s prose style

He is considered as the father of modern English prose. His style proves English language can be use to express the
complexity of thought in clear and short sentences. He is one of the greatest writers of English prose of his age. His
later essays are different from his earlier ones. In the beginning he had written them in his dairy. But
when he observed the fame of his essays he thought to embellish his later essays. All his essays fulfill the
requirements of an essay. He bounds the interest of the reader through his dynamic writing. Althoug
he expresses some characteristics of Elizabeth prose yet his manner is much different from these
writers. In fact, Bacon has borrowed the style of Montaigne French prose writer. But some difference
Montaigne has written personal essays but Bacon has written in an impersonal manner. He knows very well
how to summarize a length statement in just small line and must of his statements can be expanded to
several pages. He usually starts his essays with a striking statement which is a characteristic of modern prose.
These statements come down like strokes of hammer on the mind of the reader. “Man in great places are thrice
servants” Because of his this aphoristic style, most of his sayings are considered as proverbs and quotations.
He gives a philosophy insight into human nature. Whatever he says is truth about man and his terse style
makes these truths certainly remarkable. “A man that studieth revenge keeps his own wound green” His
essays are in fact, a treasure house of practical wisdom. He also uses the method of “antitheses” He simply
balances his statement by giving the positive and negative or good and bad and sometimes, various directions of a
subject. When he gives a statement, he immediately counterbalances it. Sometimes, he gives a definite conclusion
but usually he leaves the
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result to the reader. And this is also a modern aspect of his writing. Same example of his antithetical
and multidimensional sentences are given below: “Children sweeten labours ; but they make misfortune
more bitter” “Wives are young men’s mistresses; companions for middle age; and old men’s nurses”
The rhetorical quality of Bacon also proves the strength of his style. He has great power to attract and persude his
readers, even though he may not convince them. “A mixture of a lie doth ever add pleasure Similarly this sentence
also attracts our attention. “He that hath wife and children hath given hostage to fortune” Bacon also uses
imagery and figurative language in his essays which is a Renaissance trait. In his later essays the use of imagery is
even stronger. He is quite expert in the use of similes and metaphors. He draws his analogies from
mythology, Bible, astronomy, philosophy, nature observation, domestic objects, navigation, war, the sea or
the garden. “Those that want friends to open themselves unto are cannibals of their own hearts.”
Bacon’s essays also show his love for learning and wisdom, for he uses the sayings and quotations of the
legends and heroes of the past. One can easily find a vast range of quotes of great philosophers like Aristotle and
Plato, kings like Caesar and other well known figures of the golden times to make his style more scholarly. Though
Bacon’s essays are enriched with knowledge and wisdom but there is not even the slightest touch of humor in
them, still one gets amused on reading them. His witty, condense and pithy style has made them so much interesting.
He has discussed almost all angles of life with remarkable brevity. To Conclude, Bacon’s essays clearly portray his
love for knowledge and wisdom, his wide range of experience and the influence of Renaissance on him.
For it is possible only for a learned and well experienced man, as Bacon was, to say so much, with great depth, in
few words. Bacon' s Philosophy of Life As Revealed in His Essays Francis Bacon, (1561-1626) the most
influential and resourceful English writer, is a practically wise man. His essays are store-house of wordy wisdom and
practicality. We find a touch of reality and practicality in his views towards truth studies love, friendship etc. Now we
are going to discuss his views. Bacon is very much frank is expressing his view towards truth in the essay "Of
Truth". Truth, according to Bacon, lacks the charm of variety which, falsehood has. Truth gives more pleasure only
when a lie is added to it. He believes that, falsehood is a source of temporary enjoyment as it gives the people a
strange kind of pleasure. So the essayist says: "... a mixture of a lie doth ever add pleasure" To Bacon, a liar is brave
towards god but cowards towards men. A liar does not have courage to tell the truth to the people but he shows
courage to tell a lie disobeying god. As the essayist comments: "For a lie faces God, and shrinks from man." This is
indeed a paradox. It means that a man does not fear god when he tells a lie. Bacon's attitude towards study is
completely practical. He emphasizes the function of studies. To him, reading improves the natural abilities of man.
Through reading a person becomes a full man and by discussion he becomes a ready man. Then he needs writing to
which makes a learner's idea clear and accurate. As Bacon says: "Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready
man; and writing an exact man." At first, a man should carefully, then discuss the ideas and finally write them.
Again, Bacon suggests us how we should read the books. The books should be read according to their importance.
There are some books which are read only for pleasure, a number of books are to be memorized but a few books are
to be read deeply with hard work and concentration. As the author says: "Some books are to be tasted, others to be
swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested." Bacon points out that, study enlighten human character
by removing darkness of fault and follies. Study becomes fruitful only when it is combined with experience.
Bacon also mentions the benefit of reading various subjects in "Of Studies" "Histories make men wise, poets witty;
the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep" Bacon is very practical in treating love. He considers it just one of
many passions of humanmind. He does not pay extra favour to it emotionally; rather he sees love as a "child
of folly" in his essay "Of Love". As he comments: "Nuptial love maketh man kind; friendly love perfecteth it,
but wanton love corrupteth and embaseth it." Moreover in Bacon's view, the wives and the children are the hindrance
in the way of the success. As he says: "He that hath wife and children hath given hostage of fortune" In his
essay "Of Marriage and Single Life" he tells the readers the practical benefit of wives. In his own speech:
"Wives are young men's mistress; companions for middle age, and old men's nurses." In the essay "Of Revenge", he
shows a certain high morality by saying that- "Revenge is a kind of wild justice". A man takes the revenge on the
person by whom he is oppressed. So if he takes revenge, it will be a justice. But at the time when a man takes revenge
he takes it more aggressively than he is oppressed. This is why Bacon calls the revenge a kind of wild justice. So he
suggests us to be aloof from taking revenge. In his essay "Of Parents and Children", he shows both the utility and the
futility of having children. As he says: "Children sweeten labour, but they make misfortune more bitter." Last of all,
we say that, Bacon is very exact to his views and thoughts. His essays are the hand-book of practical wisdom full of
morality and practicality as well as enriched with maxims.
Jonathan Swift as a Misanthrope.

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 In a letter that he wrote to Alexander Pope with regard to this book, he makes several points. Firstly, he says that the
chief end of all his labours is “to vex the world rather than divert it” . Secondly, he declares
that he has “ever hated all nations, professions and communities and all his love is toward individuals”.
` Explaining this remark, he says that he hates the tribe of lawyers, physicians, etc, but he loves particular
lawyers and physicians. He goes on to say in this connection that principally he hates and detests that animal
called man. In fact Swift is not a complete misanthrope, he hates mankind collectively but loves particular
individuals in all
categories and classes of people. His main subject in writing Gulliver’s Travels was to shake people out of
their complacency and to make them aware of their own faults and shortcomings. Connected with this chief
aim, was
Swift’s desire to expose the shortcomings, follies and injustices perpetrated by particular individuals such as Robert
Walpole, Queen Anne and other. Swift’s satire becomes mare amusing when Gulliver speaks of the
conflict
between the Big- Endians and the Little- Endians in Lilliput is actually represents the conflict between the Roman
Catholics and Protestants. Flimnap the treasurer represents Sir Robert Walpole who was the prime minister of
England
from 1715 to 1716 and then again from 1721 to 1742. Dancing on a tight rope symbolizes Walpole’s skill
in parliamentary tactics and political intrigues the annoyance of the Empress of Lilliput with Gulliver for
extinguishing a
fire in her palace is a satirical allusion to Queen Anne’s annoyance with Swift for having written “A Tale of a Tub”.
Then there is another satire of a general kind in part I. For instance, the Lilliputians bury their dead with their heads
directly downwards because they hold an opinion that in eleven thousand moons, the dead will rise again. Another
interesting point is that children in Lilliput are not bought up or educated by their parents but is the responsibility of
the state. Swift is here ridiculing the Lilliputians who after all represent human beings reduced to a small
scale. In part ll,not only are the men and women here huge in size, but the animals like cats, rats and monkeys and
insects
like bees, wasps are also enormous sizes. In part II, Swift satirizes the ugliness, the coarseness, and the foulness of
the human body by making us look at human beings through a magnifying glass. Not only is the
description of the
beggars disgusting but even the maids of honour at the Royal Court produce a disgusting effect upon
Gulliver, becomes a very offensive smell comes from their skins. When Gulliver has given to the King an account of
the life in
his own country, the king has a hearty laugh. The Kings view was that the history of Gulliver’s country seemed to
him to be only ‘a heap of conspiracies, rebellions, murders, massacres, revolutions, banishments and very worst
effects that
avarice, faction, hypocrisy, perfidiousness, cruelty, rage , madness, hatred, envy, lust, malice and ambition
could produce’. Swift is here ridiculing human pride and Tahir Online Academy (Whatsapp: 03074384586) Join Our
MA
English Online Classes and Whatsapp groups : 03076474151 Page 10 pretention. These comments of King almost
sum up Swift’s own cynical views about mankind in general. In part III, Swift ridicule
on theoreticians and academies. At the academy of projectors in Lagado, the projectors are busy finding methods to
is how Gulliver
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out of cucumber, human excrement into its original ‘Yet
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attack in tells
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all mankind.
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the book sometimes to theconfirmed
had largely ambitions his of Kings toand
attention sometimes
England to European
and to the the corruption of
countries,
ministers. Gulliver speaks of the numerous deadly weapons which the European
but now he widens the scope of his satire to cover all mankind. The Yahoos represents not only Englishmen or nations employ. Similarly,
he gives ain general,
Europeans vivid account
but allofhuman
the destruction
beings. The thatevils
war which
causes:master‘Ships sunk with a has
Houyhnhnms thousand men, twenty
discovered thousand
in Yahoos are
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found side; dying beings
human groans, alllimbs flying
over the inworld.
the air,Insmoke,
part IV,noise, confession,
Yahoos who are trampling
described toas death under horses’
unteachable brutes,
feet; flight,
cunning, pursuit, victory;
gluttonous, field strewed
are represents the human with carcasses
beings. left for with
But contrast food the
to dogs,
Yahoos,andthe
wolves, and birdsareof noble
Houyhnhnms prey;
ravishing,
plundering,
and burning,
benevolentstripping,
and destroying.’
animals who are governed by The effectThe
reason. of Gulliver’s
Houyhnhnms,description
on the on his master
contrary, are is one of so
morally disgust
good
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that there species.
is no word in their languageThe wholeoroffalsehood.
for lying this account by Gulliver is an exposure of the evils of wars and
This
wickness of lawyers and judges. Gulliver the also says that many people on his country ruin themselves by
drinking, gambling, and debauchery; and that many are guilty of such crimes as murder, theft, robbery,
forgery, rape, and
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sodomy. Infact the Houyhnhnms becomes models for human being. Another thing that human beings
have to learn from the Houyhnhnms is the control of population. According to Gulliver, this lesson was known to
horses in the eighteenth century. Swift does not hate mankind. He was therefore justified in saying in
his letter to Pope that though he hated communities and professions, he loved particular individuals, he writes: ‘I
have ever hated all nation, professions, and communities but principally I hate and detest that animal called man……
this great foundation of misanthropy the whole building of my Travels is erected.’
Upon To conclude we can say
that this great artist was not a misanthrope but a humanist and a moralist of a very high order.
Heaney’s prose style
Seamus Heaney an Irish poet and writer was awarded the noble Prize in 1995. In the course of his careers,
he contributed to the promotions of artistic and educational cause, both in Ireland and abroad. Heaney’s
approach is rational, scientific and it is imaginative as well. This is a paradox that Heaney is scientific and
imaginative at the sometime. But he does convey his thought in an impressive and convincing way. He seeks
balance and does justice to both reality and imagination. He lives to convey his thought and meaning through
appropriate language and words and he avoids all superfluous expressions. His approach is anecdotal. Heaney’s style
is that he begins by giving examples or by telling stories. He developes an argument with the help of stories,
as he begins his essay “The Redress Of Poetry” with the story of fantastic crew from some other world ariving on
the earth. Heaney’s style is a blend of the classical and the romantic. He also has an intuitive approach. He very
much bases his arguments on the sixth sense though he is a practical thinker. Thus like the romantics, he believes in
institution and like the neo-classics, he believes in reason and practice. He is also didactic. He believes that the poet
has a responsibility and that is to respond the questions raised by life. He believes that poetry gives lessons. This is
Heaney’s mysticism. Heaney is an idealist too. He is of the view that poetry gives an alternative view of life—a view
of what life ought to be is desirable as well as possible. Heaney’s approach is historical. He sees the issues of poetry
in the historical perspective. For instance, he starts the essay with Plato’s condemnation of poetry. Another aspect of
his classical approach is that he believes in authority. He quotes other writers, critics and poets in his favour.
This is a classical style of argumentation . His arguments are based upon other’s views besides his own reason.
There are many textual references in his writings, such as references to the poems of Robert Frost, Hardy, George
Herbert and his own poetry. There are allusions from Poetry as well as from prose. Heaney’s well known for his
antithetical style which has also been very popular among the schoolmen. Heaney is very much conscious of
Paradoxes- “Creators/Creative, heaven/earth, soul/body, eternity/Home, life/death, Christ/man, grace/guilt,
virtue/sin.” All these antitheses help Heaney a lot in his defence of poetry. Heaney’s Prose style has the qualities of
precision and meaning through appropriate language and words. His use of proper words in proper places is in a
straight forward manner. His prose style is aphoristic But his aphorisms are not as striking as those of Bacon.
Still there is a glimpse of his tersness of thought. As he says; “Poetry is comprehensive of events but not
itself productive of new events” “Life raises questions; Poetry answers them” “Poetry leads from delight to
wisdom” These kinds of paradoxes, balances, counter balances, comparisons and contrasts are typical of
Heaney’s prose style. He also appeals to the common sense of the everyday practice of life to bring a point home. As
he says we condemn English by using the English language .Through language and Media we have already been
influenced by what we condemn. This creates another Paradox, and it is a culture paradox. Heaney uses linguistic
paradox as well as a culture paradox. Heaney talks of force can be physically expressed as one shaking with
excitement. Like Eliot Heaney also believes in a personal mind and a communal mind. The two become one, as in the
case of Irish Poets, Poetry and Politics become one .The individual poet has the same feelings of liberation does not
become a proganda. Heaney’s approach is partly religious, partly intuitive, partly anecdotal and partly rational. Thus
it is a blend of the neo-Classic, the Scientific, the romantic and the pragmatic. He is versatile and practical
thinker. He, unlike the schoolmen, is not dogmatic. He talks, argues analyses and critically evaluates the commonly
held beliefs and then gives own philosophy the basis of the opinions of different critics, poets and writers and all this
makes his essay “The Redress Of Poetry” a literary achievement.
Seamus Heaney Arguments in the Favour of Poetry
Q: How far is Seamus Heaney justified in seeking the redress of poetry? (P.U. 2005) The subject that
Seamus Heaney has treated, the redress of poetry, is not a new subject. The nature and purpose of poetry has been a
subject of practical importance to everyone who has an interest in poetry. Heaney builds different assumptions for the
redress of poetry. The question is that whether, poetry is a useful activity in society; whether poetry is an aesthetic or
a pragmatic work. There have been a lot of discussions whether poets and poetry are of any use in the complexities
and miseries of life or not some are of the view that the poets are worthless people and some condemned them as idle
4
people. As
plato is among the haters of poets and poetry. He had banished the poets from his ‘Republic’. Aristotle was of the
view that the poets are essential to keep balance in society and they took us towards the ideal. There were others also
who kept defending poetry against all kinds of objections for instance, Sydney asserted that ‘The poet takes us to the
ideal’. So did Shelley support poetry because poetry teaches the perfect. Oscar wild said that life should imitate art
because art presents the perfect. Arnold went to the extent of saying that all that now goes in the name of religion or
philosophy will be replaced by poetry. Sidney wrote in “Apology for Poetry” “Poets are the
unacknowledged legislators of the World”. Heaney makes a fresh attempt to defend poetry in this age of science and
technology when everyone Is becoming a utilitarian and even education has been commercialized. Poetry and
Philosophy are now considered idle mental luxuries while commerce, computer and business administration have
been given the name of education. Heaney starts his thesis by distinguishing two planes of existence. Here he quotes
George Herbert’s poem ‘Pulley; which suggests that the mind and aspiration of the human beings turned towards the
heavenly inspite of all the pleasures and penalties of being upon the earth. This can be done by poetic sixth sense
which provides a passage from the domain of the matter of fact; into the domain of the imagination. Here
Heaney also quotes the same explanation of religious experience by John Donne. Donne says God throws down in
order to rise up. It s a religious paradox that sin brings man closer to God. This is how Heaney concludes that these
paradoxes are captured only by poetry. Heaney is of the opinion that the world of reality and the world of
imagination are two different worlds but they depend upon each other and they reinforce each other and this is the
subject of his poem “Squarings”. From this story, Heaney concludes that there are two worlds, our everyday world
and the world of visionary crew. Heaney keeps moving between the world of fact and the world of imagination. He
quotes from Pinskey to support his argument. Pinskey in “Responsibilites of The Poet” says that the poet has a
responsibility to answer. He is to answer the question raised by life. Life raises questions and poet gives answers.
Seamus Heaney defends poetry on the ground of utility also. He says poetry focuses from delight to wisdom. He says
the world of poetry is an answer to the world of fact. Life creates anxieties; Poetry tries to relieve them. Life disturbs
but poetry consoles. It shows man the right path and poetry has a power of sustaining man in difficulties. These are
the pragmatic advantages of poetry. Heaney also defends poetry on the level of its aesthetic utility. We get pleasure
out of words. Man comes to wisdom through delight, not to delight through wisdom. Man studies poetry to amuse
himself and to satisfy his soul but in this psychological state he gets wisdom as well. Thus, poetry is a pleasurable
study of life. Poetry can very pleasantly and easily explore the subjects which are generally denied by social, racial,
sexual, and political prejudices and all this is done through the linguistic medium. But the poet has to take care that
while discussing these issues poetry should not be sacrificed, Heaney says that the poets should not narrow down their
scope by limiting poetry to certain dimensions of time and space. It should be free from any restriction. Some demand
that the poets should write against the common trend to shock the minds of the people. They should write
revolutionary poetry. But the impact of poetry is not practical, it is psychological. Poetry does not force
man to go and fight. But poetry shows what is wrong and what is right. If poetry becomes practical, according to
Heaney, it will not remain poetry, it will become a propaganda. It is not the nature of poetry. Heaney quotes Wallace
Stevens in order to evaluate his argument. Wallace says! Poetry creates an alternative world to the world of fact.
Poetry suggests what life ought to be. Poetry makes sketches and plans. It shows possibilities; it shows what is
desirable. Moreover, Poetry is about man. Poetry promotes, love of men. Poetry shows that all men are human
beings and they deserve sympathy. But politics tells us that some people deserve sympathy and some deserve our
wrath. Poetry speaks of love for all people: Politics forces people to kill other people. In fact politics divides
men. If poetry becomes politics then it will not remain poetry, it will become a propaganda and in this way it
will divide humanity into friends and foes. For instance, the Irish men who were killed in the rising of 1916 . But he is
also sorry for the Englishmen who died in the fight. Talking about the humanitarian zeal of poetry. Heaney says, that
zeals considers both enemies and friends as men. He does not discriminate between the Irish People and the English
people. Both were fighting for their ideals. That is exactly what poetry conveys to us, everyman whether black or
white; Irish or English has the same feeling, passions and blood. Heaney raises an interesting point here which is also
shared by Edward Said in “Culture and Imperialism” that the sensibility of the people of the colonies is coloured by
the sensibility of the imperial masters. As the Irish condemn the English but they use the English medium.
Imperialism has inculcated in their minds a culture that they tried to reject. But this is also a very healthy experience.
The Irish hate the English, still they love Shakespeare and Keats. To conclude, Heaney tries to demonstrate that
poetry has a function in life, though not ostentatious. The poet does nothing on purpose, but poetry is a medium which
by its very nature serves a purpose. This can be understood with reference to a statement by Wordsworth that his
poetry has a purpose. It is not meaningless activity. But this purpose is not imposed upon poetry. Since
Wordsworth lives a purposeful life, therefore whatever he does has a
5
purpose in it. Heaney believes that poetry cannot be subjected to any particular direction and not limited to any
certain aspect of society. He emphasizes that poets should elevate their services on universal level and poetry should
be above all racial, social and political prejudices. This is how he evaluates brighter sides and aspects of poetry in his
essay ‘Redress of Poetry”
Swift's social satire in "Gulliver's Travels"
“Gulliver’s Travels” is a great work of social satire. Swift’s age was an age of smug complacency.
Corruption was rampant and the people were still satisfied. In “Gulliver’s Travels”, there is a satire on politics,
human physiognomy, intellect, manners and morality. In the first voyage to Lilliput, Swift satirizes on
politics and political tactics practiced in England through Lilliputians, the dwarfs of six inches height. He satirizes the
manner in which political offices were awarded by English King in his time. Flimnap, the Treasurer, represents Sir
Robert Walpole who was the Prime Minister of England. Dancing on tight ropes symbolizes Walpole's skill
in parliamentary tactics and political intrigues. The ancient temple, in which Gulliver is housed in
Lilliput, refers to Westminster Hall in which Charles I was condemned to death. The Lilliputians were highly
superstitious: “They bury their dead with their head directly downwards because they hold an opinion that after
eleven thousand moons they are all to rise again.” Gulliver’s account of the annoyance of the Empress
of Lilliput on extinguishing fire in her apartment is Swift’s satirical way of describing Queen Anne’s
annoyance with him on writing “A Tale of a Tub”. Swift’s satire becomes amusing when Gulliver speaks of the
conflict between the Big Endians and the Little Endians. In this account Swift is ridiculing the conflicts between the
Roman Catholics and the Protestants. High Heel and Low Heel represent Whig and Tory – two political parties in
England. In the second voyage to Brobdingnag, there is a general satire on human body, human talents
and human limitations. Gulliver gives us his reaction to the coarseness and ugliness of human body. When
Gulliver gives an account, to the King of Brobdingnag, of the life in his own country, the trade, the wars, the
conflicts in religion, the political parties, the king remarks that the history of Gulliver's country seems to be a
series of conspiracies, rebellions, murders, revolutions and banishments etc. King mocks at the human race of which
Gulliver is the agent. “The most pernicious race of little odious vermin that nature ever suffered to crawl upon the
surface of the earth.” Swift here ridicules human pride and pretension. The sight is,
indeed, horrible and disgusting. Among the beggars is a woman with a cancer in her breast. “It stood prominent six
feet, and could not be less than sixteen in circumference
… spots and pimples that nothing could appear more nauseous.” There is a man with a huge tumor in his neck;
another beggar has wooden legs. But the most hateful sight is that of the lice crawling on their clothes. This
description reinforces Swift views of the ugliness and foulness of the human body. In
the third voyage to Laputa, there is a satire on human intellect, human mind and on science, philosophy and
mathematics. However, his satire is not very bitter. We are greatly amused by the useless experiments and
researches, which are going on at the academy of Projectors in Lugado. Here scientists wants to
extract sunbeams out of cucumbers, to convert human excrement into its original food, to build house from
the roof downward to the foundation, to obtain silk from cobwebs and to produce books on various subjects
by the use of machine without having to exert one’s brain. “Their heads were inclined either to the right or
to the left, one of their eyes turned inward, and the other directly up to Zenith” In the fourth voyage to
Houyhnhnms, there is a bitter poignant satire on human moral shortcomings. The description of the Yahoos given to
us by Gulliver is regrettable. “Yet I confess I never say any sensitive being so detestable on all accounts; and the
more I came near them, the more hateful they grew.” By contrast, the Houyhnhnms are noble and
benevolent horses who are governed by reason and lead an ordered life. It is, indeed, a bitter criticism on the
human race to be compared by the Houyhnhnms. The satire deepens when Gulliver gives an account, to
the master Houyhnhnms, of the events in his country. He tells him that war in European countries was
sometimes due to the ambition of kings and sometimes due to the corruption of the ministers. He speaks of the
numerous deadly weapons, employed by European nations for destructive purposes. Many people in his
country ruin themselves by drinking, gambling and debauchery and many are guilty of murders, theft, robbery,
forgery and rape. The master speaks of the lascivious behavior of the female Yahoos. By contrast, the Houyhnhnms
are excellent beings. “Here was neither physician to destroy my body not lawyer to ruin my fortune; no informer to
watch my words and actions … here were no … backbiters, pickpockets, highwaymen, house- breakers … politicians,
wits … murderers, robbers … no cheating shop-keeper or mechanics, no pride, vanity or affectation.”
They hold meetings at which the difficulties of their population are discussed and solved. They
regulate attribute
their population and qualities
to horses certain do notwhich
indulge
wouldinnormally
sexual beintercourse
expected inmerely
humanforbeings
pleasure.
but“Everything
which areis
calculated as the Plato’s Utopian land ‘The Republican’.” Swift’s purpose here is to actually
6
lacking in them. Gulliver’s reaction to Houyhnhnms fills him so much admiration for them and with so
much hatred and disgust for human beings that he has no desire even to return to his family. Thus we see that
“Gulliver’s Travels” is a great piece of art containing social satire in it. Every satirist is at heart a reformist. Swift,
also, wants to reform the society by pinpointing the vices and shortcoming in it. And he very successfully
satirizes on political tactics, physical awkwardness, intellectual fallacies and moral shortcomings
SWIFT'S PROSE STYLE
In prose, style is a special way of presenting ideas i.e. how a writer says something. The analysis and assessment of
style involves examination of a writer’s choice of words, his figures of speech, the shape of his sentences, the shape
of his paragraphs, in short every aspect of his language and the way he uses it. As far as, Swift as a literary artist is
concerned, he is vastly regarded as an original, authentic and intellectual writer, who always remained blind of the
charm of fame. His writings never limited to the cheap purpose of gaining popularity. In fact, a theological
and intellectual current always flows through his pages. His purpose was not to get imaginative insight only. He
always tried to be practical. In fact, his prose style is often considered as near perfect. Most of the critics accept his
style as the highest achievement of English prose. Many critics like Williams Deans, Howells, Dr. Johnson, Coleridge
and T.S Eliot called Jonathan Swift the greatest writer of the prose. One of the causes of the popularity Swift’s of
“Gulliver Travel” is the simple and direct narrative style of the book. The plain description gives us the
impression that the author is describing which he has himself seen or experienced. Here, for example is his
description of, How Gulliver was served well in Lilliput: “I had three
hundred cooks to dress my victuals” According to Dr Jonathan, Swift was the first to appreciate the simplicity
of Swift’s style. He said, “The reader of Swift needs no previous knowledge.” Coleridge, whose own prose was
marked by metaphysical subtlety, also paid a tribute to simplicity of Swift style. He said, “Swift style is in its line: the
manner is a complete expression of the matter." When Swift started writing he did not adopt the prose style of
his predecessors. Swift style is lucid and terse. He seems to have no difficulty in finding words to express
exactly the impression which he wishes to convey. His sentences come home to the reader, like the words of great
orator or advocate with convincing force. He realizes so clearly what he is describing and necessity of the
reader. Swift defined style as “proper words in proper places.” This definition fits his own writing perfectly well.
Swift’s prose is an example of the right words in the right place. His words are selected that they convey exactly the
impression he wishes to create. Swift selects the most appropriate words to express his thoughts. The words suit the
subject perfectly. Sometimes he even ignores the rules of grammar in order to express himself in a way which will
create the correct impression. Referring to his style, Dr. Jonathan has said; “His style was well suited to his
thoughts, which are never decorated by sparkling conceits, elevated by ambitious sentences or variegated by far-
sought learning.” According to Matthew Arnold, “the qualities of good prose are unfairly, regularity,
precision and balance.” These are exactly the qualities of Swift’s prose. He always says clearly and
precisely what he means. As an example, we can see the description of a minister of state given by Gulliver to his
Honyhnhnm master. “ I told him that a first or chief minister of state who was the person I intended to describe, was a
creature wholly exempt from over joy and grief, love and hatred, pity and anger; at least make use of no other
passions but a violent desire of wealth, power and titles; that he applies his words to all uses, except to the indication
of his mind; that he never tells a truth, but with an intent that you should take it for a lie, nor a lie, but with a design
that you should take if for a truth." It is often said that Swift’s prose style lacks imagination and passion. A French
critic says: “Swift style lacks eloquence of ideas and sentiments. Eloquence in his sense is mind’s highest
reach and widest conquest. It is the creative energy of life itself, manifested on those frontiers which we
call variously religion, philosophy and poetry.” But these views lack vitality and are deficient in truth. The age of
Swift is called “The Age of Prose and Reason”. Swift came under the influence of an age when imagination and
emotions were subordinated to reason and wit. People believed in the supremacy of reason; and their thoughts were
determined by reason. Hence, Swift describes both imagination and emotions. He tries to convince his readers. He
appeals to their minds not to their hearts. Moreover, he offers a “criticism of life”; and criticism has no link,
whatsoever, with imagination and emotions. There are no imaginative flights, nor soaring into the infinite, no
raptures of idealism, no fine frenzies of passion; there just charity. To understand Swift’s intentions not much
scholarly knowledge is required. His writing is free from any absurdities of style, diction and references to ancient
Greek or Roman religious or another mythology. Conclusion: In the end, it can be said that Swift deserve praise for
easy and safe communication. His chief quality is that he instructs but never persuades. His works shows the highest
power of geniuses applied to the literary creations. Even the severest of the critics have not denied the originality of
his work. Perhaps we cannot find better words than that of Henry Craik to describe his style: “His works
literature”
occupy a place altogether unique in our own or any other
7
What is culture and what is imperialism and how does Edward Said relate the two? What is Culture and what
is Imperialism and how does Said relate the Two in the Literary Context? (P.U. 2003)
Edward Said, a brilliant and unique amalgam of scholar, literary critic and political activist, examines the roots of
imperialism in the Western culture and traces the relationship between culture and imperialism. Imperialism
has always fascinated the literary writers and political thinkers as a subject. It was a major theme of
nineteenth and twentieth century native and non-native novelists and poets. Different writers have different
perception about the phenomenon. A lot has been written on the subject in the past but Edward’s book Culture and
Imperialism attracted everybody’s attention. This book was read and discussed in all parts of the world and was
hailed by reviewers and critics as a monumental work. In the Introduction to Culture and Imperialism, Edward states
that his previous work Orientalism was limited to Middle East, and in the present book he wanted to describe
a more general pattern of relationship between the modern West and its overseas territories. This book, he says, is
not a sequel of Orientalism, as it aims at something different. According to Edward
there are two types of attitudes towards culture. One that considers culture as a concept that includes refining and
elevating element, each society’s reservoir of best that has been known and thought. The other is the
aggressive, protectionist attitude viewing culture as a source of identity that differentiates between ‘us and ‘them’,
and power with which we can combat the influences of the foreign cultures. Such an attitude is opposed to liberal
philosophies, as multiculturalism and hybridism, and has often lead to religious and- nationalist fundamentalism.
Culture conceived in this way becomes a protective enclosure that divorces us from the everyday world. “I have
found it a challenge not to see culture in this way- that is, antiseptically quarantined from worldly affiliations, but as
an extraordinary field of endeavour.” Edward Said sees the European writing on Africa, India, Ireland, Far Hast and
other lands as part of European effort to rule distant lands. He says that Colonial and post-Colonial fiction is central to
his argument. These writings present the colonised lands as ‘mysterious lands’ inhabited by uncivilized barbarians,
who understood only the language of violence, and deserved to be ruled. This is a misrepresentation of the native
people and their cultures, and needs to be redressed. Edward Said finds a connection between these narratives and the
imperial process, of which they are a part. These writing ignore the important aspect of the reality- the native people
and their culture. Edward Said refers to two novels in order to explain what he had in mind: Dickens’ Great
Expectations, and Joseph Conrad’s Nostromo. Dickens’ Great Expectations is a primarily a story about Pip’s vain
attempt to become a gentleman. Early in life Pip helps a condemned convict, Abel Magwitch, who after being
transported to Australia, pays back Pip with huge sums of money through his lawyer. Magwitch reappears
illegally in London after sometime. Pip does not welcome him and rejects him as an unpleasant criminal.
Magwitch is unacceptable being from Australia, a penal colony designed for rehabilitation of English criminals.
This is a remarkable novel, according to Said, but the focus of the narrative is London, not Australia. Dickens did not
bother to discuss the plight of the convicts in Australia, from where they could never return. In Said’s judgment the
prohibition placed on Magwitch’s return is not only penal but also imperial. These ugly criminals could not by
allowed to return to England-the land of decent people. Conrad’s Nostromo, the second example picked up by Said,
is set in a Central American Republic, independent, but dominated by outside interests because of its immense silver
mines. In this novel Holroyd, the American financer tells Charles Gould, the British owner of a mine: ‘We shall run
the world’s business whether the world likes it or not. The world can’t help it- and neither we can, I guess.’ This is
the general thinking of the imperialists. Much of the rhetoric of ‘The New World Order’ with its self-assumed
responsibility of civilizing the world, seems to be originated from this thinking, says Edward Said, The problem with
Conrad is that he writes as a man whose Western view of Non-Western world is so ingrained in as to blind him
to other histories, other cultures and other aspirations. He could never understand that India, Africa and
South Africa had lives and cultures of their own, not totally controlled by the imperialists. Conrad allows
the readers to see that imperialism is a system and it should work in a proper fashion. There are certain obvious
limitations of Conrad’s vision. Conrad was both imperialist and anti-imperialist, progressive in rendering the
corruption of overseas domination, deeply reactionary in ignoring the fact that Africa and South America had
independent history and culture, which the imperialist violently disturbed but by which they were ultimately
defeated. All such works, says Edward Said, seem to argue that source of world’s significant action and life was the
West, and rest of the world was mind-deadened, having no life, history or integrity of its own. It is not that these
westerners had no sympathy for the foreign cultures; their real drawback was their inability to take seriously the
alternatives to imperialism. The world has changed since Conrad and Dickens due to imperialistic globalisation.
Now various cultures have a closer interaction and have become interdependent. The colonisers and the colonized do
not exist in separate worlds. So, one-sided versions cannot hold for long. Even those who are on the side of those
fighting; for freedom from imperialists need to avoid narrow-mindedness and chauvinistic trends. One has to listen
to what 8
people are saying on other side of the fence. (This is what Seamus Heaney says in Redress Of the Poetry.) This, says,
Said, is a positive development. One should always suspect the impressions of an exclusive consciousness. Most of
the Western writers, for example, could never imagine that those ‘natives’ who appeared either subservient,
or uncooperative were one day going to be capable of revolt. In the last part of the Introduction to
‘Culture and Imperialism’ Said makes some other points bout the book. The purpose of his book, he says,
is so trace the relationship between culture, aesthetic forms and historical experience. His aim is not to give a
catalogue of books and authors, “Instead, I have tried to look at what I consider to be important and essential things.”
My hope is that readers and critics of this book will use it to further the lines of enquiry and arguments about the
historical experience of imperialism put forward in it.” Moreover, he has not discussed all the empires. He
has focused on three imperial powers: British, French, and American. This book is about past and present, about
‘us’ and ‘them’, he says. Said says that the origin of current American policies can be seen in the past. All powers
aspiring for global domination have done .the same things. There is always the appeal to power and national
interest in running the affairs of ‘lesser peoples’, and the same destructive zeal when the going goes rough.
America made the same mistake in Vietnam and Middle East. The worst part of the whole exercise has been the
collaboration of intellectuals, artists and journalists with these practices. Said hopes that a history of imperial
adventure rendered in cultural terms might serve some deterrent purpose. Said makes it clear that the criticism
on imperialism does exempt the aggrieved colonized people from criticism. The fortunes and misfortunes of
nationalism, of what can be called separatism and nativism, do not always make a flattering story. Narrow and
dogmatic approach to culture can be as dangerous to culture as is imperialism. Secondly, culture is not the
property of the East or the West. Edward Said, by necessity, was in a position to be objective in his approach,
as he lived most part of his life in exile and had the personal experience of both the cultures. He was born in Middle
East and lived as an exile in America, where he wrote this book. He sums up his position in following works. “The
last point I want to make is that this is an exile’s book. Ever since I remember, I have felt that I belonged to both the
Worlds, without being completely of either one or the other”.