M&I

LEC 1 Basic Principles

An instrument is a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
As technology expands the demand for more accurate instruments increase and produces new
developments in instrument design and application. On the other hand, measurement is a process
by which one can convert physical parameters to meaningful number

Methods of Measurements :

1. Direct Methods. In the direct method of measurement, we compare the unknown quantity
directly with the primary or secondary standard. For example if we want to measure the length of
the bar, we will measure it with the help of the standard measuring tape or scale that acts as the
secondary standard. Here we compare the unknown quantity directly with the standard scale. The
scale is expressed as a numerical number and a unit.
The direct comparison method of measurement is not always accurate. In above example of
measuring the length, there is limited accuracy with which our eye can read the readings, which
can be about 0.01 inch. Here the error does not occur because of the error in the standards, but
because of the human limitations in taking the readings.

2. Indirect Methods. There are number of quantities that cannot be measured directly by
using some instrument. For instance we cannot measure the strain in the bar due to applied force
directly. In such cases indirect methods of measurements are used.
In this method the unknown quantity to be measured is converted into some other measurable
quantity. Then we measure the measureable quantity. For example the strain can be measured in
terms of the electrical resistance of the bar
Classification of Instruments
The instruments may be classified according to the following types:
1. Electrical and Electronic Instruments. The measuring instrument that uses mechanical
movement of electromagnetic meter to measure voltage, current, power, etc. is called electrical
measuring instrument. These instruments use the d’Arsonval meter. While any measurement
system that uses d’Arsonval meter with amplifiers to increase the sensitivity of measurements
is called electronic instrument.

2. Analogue and Digital Instruments. An analogue instrument is the instrument that uses
analogue signal to display the magnitude of quantity under measurement. The digital
instrument
uses digital signal to indicate the results of measurement in digital form.

3. Absolute and Secondary Instruments. In absolute instrument the measured value

is given in term of instrument constants and the deflection of one part of the instrument e.g.
tangent galvanometer. In these instruments no calibrated scale is necessary. While in secondary
instruments, the quantity of the measured values is obtained by observing the output indicated
by
these instruments.
Classification of Secondary Instruments
The secondary instrument may be classified into the following categories:
1. Indicating Instruments. The magnitude of quantity being measured is obtained by
deflection of the pointer on scale, and the output is indicated either in analogue or digital form
like ammeter, voltmeter, and wattmeter. Three forces were acting on the pointer to deflect it in
proportional to the quantity being measured, these forces are of the following types:
(a) Deflecting Force. This force gives the pointer the initial force to move it from zero
position, it’s also called deflecting force.
(b) Controlling Force. This force control and limits the deflection of the pointer on scale
which must be proportional to the measured value, and also ensure that the deflection is
always the same for the same values.
(c) Damping Force. This force is necessary to bring the pointer quickly to the measured
value, and then stop without any oscillation.
2. Recording Instruments. An instrument which makes a record in any recorded medium of
the quantity being measured in order to save information and use it in another time. The instruments
like recording devices, X-Y plotter, and oscilloscope and recording instruments.
3. Controlling Instruments. These instruments give information to control the original
measured quantity or control the other devices, like a computer.
Characteristics of Measurement Systems
The characteristics of measurement systems are
classified in to the following two types:
1. Static Characteristics
2. Dynamic Characteristics
Static Characteristics
The static characteristic of a measurement instrument is the characteristics of the system when the
input is either held constant or varying very slowly. The static characteristics are of the following
types:
1. Sensitivity. The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in instrument
output that occurs when the quantity being measured changes by a given amount
2. Linearity. It is normally desired that the output reading of the instrument is linearly
proportional to the quantity being measured. An instrument is considered linear if the
relationship between output and input can be fitted in a line if it is not a straight line it
should not be concluded that the instrument is inaccurate, it is a misconception.
3. Reproducibility. In the measurement, the given value may be repeated or measured
assuming that environmental conditions are same for each measurement. We say that the
measuring instruments have a certain amount of inherent uncertainty in their ability to
reproduce the same output reading after some time.
4. Range and Span. It defines the maximum and minimum values of the inputs or the
outputs for which the instrument is recommended to use. For example, for a temperature
measuring instrument the input range may be 100-500°C and the output range may be
4-20 mA. Span is algebraic difference of the upper and lower limits of the range.
5. Static Error. This error shows the deviation of the true value from the desired value.
6. Loading Effects. It’s the change of circuit parameter, characteristic, or behaviour due to
instrument operation.
7. Accuracy and Precision.
8. Resolution.
 Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy is a closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the true value of the variable
under measurement. Accuracy is the degree to which instrument reading match the true or accepted
values. It indicates the ability of instrument to indicate the true value of the quantity.
Accuracy refers to how closely the measured value of a quantity corresponds to its “true”
value.
Precision is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurement i.e., its measure of the degree
to which successive measurements differ from one other. It is the degree of agreement within a
group of measurements or instruments. For example if any resistance has true value 3.385,695 ohm,
it always read 3.4 Mohm in scale reading.

Resolution
Resolution is the smallest amount of input signal change that the instrument can detect reliably.
If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again be found that output
does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This increment is called resolution or
discrimination of the instrument. Thus the smallest increment in input which can be detected with
certainty by an instrument is its resolution or discrimination.

Example 1. A digital voltmeter has a read-out reading from 0 to 9,999 counts. Determine
the resolution of the instrument in volt when the full scale reading is 9.999 V.
Dynamic Characteristics
The dynamic characteristics of a measurement instrument describe the behavior of the instrument
when the desired input is not constant but varies rapidly with the time. Following are the main
types of dynamic characteristics:
1. Speed of Response. It is defined as a rapidity with which a measurement system responds
to a change in measured quantity. It gives information about how fast the system reacts to the
changes in the input.
2. Measuring lag. Every instrument takes some time to respond to the change in the measured
variable. This retardation or delay in the response of the instrument is called measuring lag. The
measuring lag is of the following two types:
(a) Retardation Lag. The response of measurement system begins immediately after a
change in measured quantity has occurred.
(b) Time Delay Lag. The measurement lags of this type are very small and are of the order
of a fraction of a second and hence can be ignored. In this case, response begins after
the application of input and is called after “dead time”. Such a delay shifts the response
along time axis and hence causes the dynamic error.
The largest change of input quantity for which there is no change in the measured quantity
is known as dead zone.
3. Fidelity. It is the ability of an instrument to produce a wave shape identical to wave shape
of input with respect to time. It also shows the change in quantity without dynamic error.
4. Dynamic Error. It is the difference between the true value changing with time & value
indicated by measuring system without static errors.
 Measurement Error
No measurement can be made with perfection and accuracy, but it is important to find out what the
accuracy actually is and how different errors have entered into the measurement. Error occurs due
to several sources like human carelessness in taking reading, calculating and in using instrument
etc. Some of the time error is due to instrument and environment effects.
Errors come from different sources and are classified in three types:
1. Gross Error
2. Systematic Errors
3. Random Errors

Gross Error
The gross error occurs due to the human mistakes in reading or using the instruments. These errors
cover human mistakes like in reading, calculating and recordings etc. It sometimes occurs due to
incorrect adjustments of instruments.
The complete elimination of gross errors is impossible, but we can minimize them by the
following ways:
1. It can be avoided by taking care while reading and recording the measurement data.
2. Taking more than one reading of same quantity. At least three or more reading must be
taken by different persons.
 Systematic Errors
A systematic error is divided in three different categories: instrumental errors, environmental errors
and observational errors.
Instrumental Errors
The instrument error generate due to instrument itself. It is due to the inherent shortcomings in
the instruments, misuse of the instruments, loading effects of instruments. For example in the
D’ Arsonval movement friction in bearings of various moving components may cause incorrect
readings. There are so many kinds of instrument errors, depending on the type of instrument used
Environmental Errors
Environmental errors arise as a result of environmental effects on instrument. It includes conditions
in the area surrounding the instrument, such as the effects of changes in temperature, humidity,
barometric pressure or of magnetic or electrostatic fields.
For example when making measurements with a steel rule, the temperature when the
measurement is made might not be the same as that for which the rule was calibrated

Observational Errors
These errors occur due to carelessness of operators while taking the reading. There are many
sources of observational errors such as parallax error while reading a meter, wrong scale selection,
the habits of individual observers etc.
Random Errors
These errors are due to unknown causes and occur even when all systematic errors have been
accounted for. In some experiments some random errors usually occur, but they become important
in high-accuracy work.
These errors are due to friction in instrument movement, parallax errors between pointer and
scale, mechanical vibrations, hysteresis in elastic members etc.
These errors are of variable magnitude and sign and do not obey any known law. The presences
of random errors become evident when different results are obtained on repeated measurements
of one and the same quantity.

Absolute Error
Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity with an accepted standard quantity.
Absolute error may be defined as the difference between the measured value of the variable and
the true value of the variable.
Relative Error
The relative error is the ratio of absolute error to the true value of the quantity to be measured.
Mathematically, the relative error can be expresses as

Example 2. A voltage has a true value of 1.50 V. An analog indicating instrument with a
scale range of 0-2.50 V shows a voltage of 1.46 V. What is the value of absolute error?
Example 3. The expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 80 V. However, the
measurement gives a value of 79 V. Calculate (i) absolute error, (ii) % error, (iii) relative
accuracy, and (iv)% of accuracy
Definition: The instruments which use the permanent magnet for creating the stationary magnetic field between
which the coil moves is known as the permanent magnet moving coil or PMMC instrument. It operates on
the principle that the torque is exerted on the moving coil placed in the field of the permanent magnet. The PMMC
instrument gives the accurate result for DC measurement.
Torque Equation for PMMC Instrument :
•Let,N = Number of turns of the coil
•l = Vertical length of the coil (m)
•d = Horizontal length of the coil (m)
•I = Current flowing through the meter
•β = Flux density between the poles (wb/m3)
•α = Angle made by the conductor with the magnetic field
In galvanometer the field present is radial. Therefore, α = 90°.
From Lorentz's force equation, we have, the force exerted on
each coil side is,
F = NBIl sinα
F = NBIl sin90°
F = NBIl ...(1)
Therefore, deflecting torque is given by, Td = F × Distance = F × d ...
(2)
Substituting equation 1 in 2, we get,Td = NBIl × d
But the area of the coil is given by, a = l × d
Td = NBIa
∴ Td = GI (G = galvanometer constant = NBa)
The controlling torque is obtained by the spring control action. ∴
Tc = Kθ
Assuming θ as deflection and K as spring constant. At steady-
state deflection, we know that Tc = Td i.e., Kθ = GI.∴ Deflection, θ
= GI/K
Characteristics of Moving Coil Meter Movement
We will discuss the following three characteristics:
(i) full-scale deflection current (Im) : Full-scale deflection current refers to the maximum current that a measuring
instrument, such as an ammeter or galvanometer, can handle without causing damage to the instrument's internal
components or exceeding its designed capacity
(ii) internal resistance of the coil (Rm),
(iii) sensitivity (S): Sensitivity in the context of a PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil) instrument refers to the
responsiveness or degree of deflection of the instrument's pointer in relation to the current being measured. It is a
measure of how much the pointer or needle moves for a given change in current.

In a PMMC instrument, sensitivity is typically expressed in terms of "current per division" or "deflection per unit
current." It quantifies the change in current required to move the pointer by one division on the instrument's scale.

For example, if a PMMC ammeter has a sensitivity of 1 mA/division, it means that for every 1 mA increase in current,
the pointer will deflect by one division on the instrument's scale.
Suppose we have a PMMC ammeter with a sensitivity of 0.1 mA/division. This means that for every 0.1 mA increase in
current, the pointer deflects by one division on the instrument's scale.
If we pass a current of 2 mA through the ammeter, we can calculate how much the pointer will deflect:
.
Deflection = (Current / Sensitivity) = (2 mA) / (0.1 mA/division) = 20 divisions
So, with a current of 2 mA, the pointer will deflect by 20 divisions on the scale of the PMMC ammeter.
Advantage of PMMC
Following are some of the advantages of PMMC which are
important from the subject point of view:
1. It has uniform scale.
2. Operating current is small.
3. It has high sensitivity.
4. It consumes low power, of order of 25 W to 200 mW.
5. It has high accuracy.
6. Extension of instrument range is possible.
7. Not affected by eternal magnetic fields called stray magnetic
fields.

Disadvantage of PMMC
PMMC has some disadvantages too. These are given below :
1. Used only for D.C measurements. The torque reverse if the
current reverses. If the
instrument is connected to A.C., the pointer cannot follow the
reversals and the deflection
corresponds to mean torque, which is zero, hence it cannot be
used for A.C.
2. The cost of the instrument is high.
Galvanometer
A moving coil galvanometer is an instrument used for detection and measurement of small electric
currents.
A galvanometer is a type of ammeter, an instrument for detecting and measuring electric
current. It is an analog electromechanical transducer that produces a rotary deflection of some
type of pointer in response to electric current flowing through its coil.
The Galvanometer is an electromechanical instrument which is used for the detection of
electric currents or voltage through electric circuits. Being a sensitive instrument, Galvanometer
cannot be used for the measurement of heavy currents.
However we can measure very small currents or voltages by using galvanometer but the
primary purpose of galvanometer is the detection of electric current not the measurement of current.
The Galvanometer may be classified into three categories

1. DC Galvanometers
There are two types of galvanometer: (i) moving-magnet 3. Ballistic Galvanometers
galvanometer and (ii) moving coil galvanometer. It is used for the measurement of charge or quantity of
electricity passed through it. This quantity
2. AC Galvanometers of electricity in magnetic measurements is due to the
The AC Galvanometers is used for measuring the effective or rms induced emf or change in magnetic flux in
value of small current or in most case null detectors in bridge and the coil. It is used in almost all the dc magnetic
potentiometer circuits. There are two types of ac galvanometers: measurements
(i) phase sensitive and (ii) frequency sensitive galvanometer