TCP/IP model vs The OSI Model

SSENDI SAMUEL
0701453639
[email protected]
OSI Model
Objectives
Design principles
Advantages
The OSI
Model
• Model for open networking systems that was developed by the International
Organizati on for Standardization (ISO)
• A basis for developing universally accepted networking protocols,
• Initiative failed due to.
• The standards process was relatively closed compared with the open standards process
used by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to develop the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• The model was overly complex. Some functions (such as connecti onless communicati on)
were neglected, while others (such as error correction and flow control) were repeated at
several layers.
• The growth of the Internet and TCP/IP—a simpler, real-world protocol model—pushed the
O S I reference model out.
OSI Model Cont’d
• Was created as a framework and reference model to explain
how different networking technologies work together and interact
• It is not a standard that networking protocols must follow
• Each layer has specifi c functions it is responsible for
• All layers work together in the correct order to move data around a
network
Benefits of OSI
Model
• It breaks network communicati on into smaller, more manageable parts.
• It standardizes network components to allow multiple vendor
development and support.
• It allows different types of network hardware and software to
communicate with each other. It prevents changes in one layer from
affecting other layers.
• It divides network communicati on into smaller parts to make learning it
easier to understand.
OSI
Layers
• Acronyms
• All People Seem To Need
Data Processing Bott om to top

• Please D o Not Throw Sammys

Pizza Away
7 Layers of the OSI Model
APDU Application layer 7 Provides communications
Top between applications.
three PPDU Presentation layer 6 Processes data formats and
layers encrypts data.

SPDU 5 Establishes, maintains, and

Session layer
manages sessions.

Segment Establishes E2E connections for

Transport layer 4
hosts.

Performs addressing and

Bottom Packet Network layer 3 routing.
four
layers Provides media access and
Frame Data Link layer 2
link management.

Bit Physical layer 1 Transmits bit streams.

OSI Layer
Roles
Physical Layer
• Deals with all aspects of physically moving data from one computer to the next
• Converts data from the upper layers into 1s and 0s for transmission over media
• Defi nes how data is encoded onto the media to transmit the data
• Defi ned on this layer: Cable standards, wireless standards, and fiber opti c standards.
• Copper wiring, fiber opti c cable, radio frequencies, anything that can be used to
• transmit data is defi ned on the Physical layer of the OSI Model
• Device example: Hub
• Used to transmit data
Data Link Layer
• Is responsible for moving frames from node to node or computer to computer
• Can move frames from one adjacent computer to another, cannot move frames across routers
• Encapsulati on = frame
• Requires M AC address or physical address
• Protocols defi ned include Ethernet Protocol and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
• Device example: Switch
• Two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and the Media Access Control (MAC)
• Logical Link Control (LLC)
• Data Link layer addressing, flow control, address notification, error control
• Media Access Control (MAC)
• Determines which computer has access to the network media at any given time
• Determines frame synchronization i.e. where one frame ends and the next one starts
Network
layer
• Resp onsible for end -to-end communications i.e. moving
d ata
packets from one end of the network to the other, called
• Requires logical addresses such as IP addresses
• Device example: Router
• Routi ng is the ability of various network devices and their related software
to move data packets from source to destination
Transport Layer
• Takes data from higher levels of O S I Model and breaks it into segments that can be sent to
lower-level layers for data transmission
• Conversely, reassembles data segments into data that higher-level protocols and applicati ons
can use
• Puts segments in correct order (called sequencing ) to be reassembled in correct order at
destination
• Responsible for reliability of the transport of sent data
• May use a connecti on-oriented protocol such as TCP to ensure destination received segments
• May use a connectionless p rotocol such as U D P to send seg ments without assurance
of delivery
• Uses port addressing
Session Layer
• Responsible for managing the dialog between networked devices
• Establishes, manages, and terminates connecti ons
• Provides duplex, half-duplex, or simplex communicati ons between
devices
• Provides procedures for establishing checkpoints,
adjournment, termination, and restart or recovery procedures
Presentation Layer

• Concerned with data presentation on

the network
• Three primary tasks:
• Translation ,
• Compression ,
• Encrypti on
Application Layer
• Contains all services or protocols needed by applicati on
software or operati ng system to communicate on the network
• Examples
• Web browser use HTTP (Hyper-Text Transport Protocol)
• E-mail programs use POP3 (Post Offi ce Protocol) to read e-mails and
SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) to send e-mails
Peer Layer Communications
Each layer uses the services provided by the lower layer to communicate with the peer layer.

Application APDU Application

layer layer
Presentation PPDU Presentation
layer layer
SPDU
Session layer Session layer

Transport Segment Transport

layer layer
Packet
Network layer Network layer
Host A Host B
Data Link Frame Data Link
layer layer
Bit
Physical layer Physical layer
TCP/IP Protocol (DOD Model)
Suite
BY SSENDIS AMUEL
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a set of

communication protocols that govern how data is transmitted between
devices over the Internet.
History of TCP/IP and OSI

• TCP/IP was developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s by the US
Department of Defense to provide reliable communication between its
computers
• In the 1980s, TCP/IP was adopted as the standard protocol suite for the
Internet.
The Difference Between OSI
and TCP/IP
• OSI is a seven-layer model.
• TCP/IP is a four-layer model that is more practical and simpler to
implement.
• OSI is a theoretical model that was never widely adopted, while TCP/IP is
the de facto standard for communication on the Internet.
• OSI provides more detail and granularity in its layers, while TCP/IP is more
streamlined and efficient.
• OSI includes a Presentation layer that is responsible for data encryption
and decryption, while TCP/IP does not include this layer.
• TCP/IP provides built-in security mechanisms, while security is not
included as part of the OSI model.
Mapping Between TCP/IP and OSI
The TCP/IP protocol stack has a simple hierarchical design and a clear mapping relationship with the OSI model.

OSI TCP/IP

Application layer

Presentation layer Application layer

Session layer

Transport layer Transport layer

Network layer Internet layer

Data Link layer Network access layer

Physical layer
Functions of Each Layer of the TCP/IP
Application HTTP, Telnet, FTP, TFTP, and DNS Provides network interfaces for
layer applications.

TCP/UDP Establishes E2E connections for

Transport layer hosts.

ICMP & IGMP Performs addressing and

Internet layer IP routing.
ARP & RARP

Network Performs physical media

access layer Ethernet, 802.3, PPP, HDLC, and FR access.
Functions of Each Layer of the TCP/IP
Application HTTP, Telnet, FTP, TFTP, and DNS Provides network interfaces for
layer applications.

TCP/UDP Establishes E2E connections for

Transport layer hosts.

ICMP & IGMP Performs addressing and

Internet layer IP routing.
ARP & RARP

Network Performs physical media

access layer Ethernet, 802.3, PPP, HDLC, and FR access.
 TCP/IP Reference Model
The OSI protocol stack is complex, and the TCP and IP protocols are widely
used in the industry. Therefore, the TCP/IP reference model becomes the
mainstream reference model of the Internet.

Application Layer

Application Layer Presentation Layer Application Layer

Session Layer

Host-to-Host Layer Transport Layer Transport Layer

Internet Layer Network Layer Network Layer

Network Access Data Link Layer Data Link Layer

Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer

Standard TCP/IP model OSI model Equivalent TCP/IP model

 Common TCP/IP Protocols
The TCP/IP protocol stack defines a series of standard protocols.

Telnet FTP TFTP SNMP

Application Layer
HTTP SMTP DNS DHCP
Transport Layer TCP UDP
ICMP IGMP
Network Layer
IP
PPPoE
Data Link Layer
Ethernet PPP
Physical Layer ...
 Common Protocol Standardization Organizations
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
IETF is a voluntary organization responsible for developing and promoting Internet protocols (especially protocols that constitute
the TCP/IP protocol suite), and releasing new or replacing old protocol standards through RFCs.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
IEEE has formulated about 30% of standards in the electronics, electrical, and computer science fields worldwide. Those standards
include well-known IEEE802.3 (Ethernet) and IEEE802.11 (Wi-Fi).
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
ISO is an international organization that plays an important role in the formulation of computer network standards, such as the OSI
model defined in ISO/IEC 7498-1.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Application Layer
• The application layer provides interfaces for application software so that applications can use network services. The
application layer protocol designates transport layer protocols and ports.
• PDUs transmitted at the application layer are called data.

Application • HTTP 80 (TCP)

Layer Hypertext transfer protocol, which provides web browsing services.
(Data) • Telnet 23 (TCP)
Remote login protocol, which provides remote management services.
Transport Layer
• FTP 20 and 21 (TCP)
File transfer protocol, which provides Internet file resource sharing services.
Network Layer
• SMTP 25 (TCP)
Simple mail transfer protocol, which provides Internet email services.
Data Link Layer • TFTP 69 (UDP)
Simple file transfer protocol, which provides simple file transfer services.
Physical Layer
 Common Application Layer Protocols
Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

- FTP
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) transfers files from one host to another to implement file download and
upload. This protocol adopts the client/server (C/S) structure.

FTP client FTP server

Network

FTP client: provides commands for local users to FTP server: a device that runs the FTP service. It
operate files on a remote server. A user can install an provides the access and operation functions for
FTP client program on a PC and set up a connection remote clients, allowing users to access the FTP
with an FTP server to operate files on the server. server through the FTP client program and access
files on the server.
 Common Application Layer Protocols -
Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Telnet
Telnet is a standard protocol that provides remote login services on a network. It provides users with the
ability to operate remote devices through local PCs.

Telnet server

Telnet connection A user connects to a Telnet server through

AP Router
the Telnet client program. The commands
Network entered on the Telnet client are executed on

Telnet client
SW Firewall
the server, as if the commands were
... entered on the console of the server.
Server
 Common Application Layer Protocols -
Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

HTTP
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): is one of the most widely used network protocols on the Internet. HTTP
was originally designed to provide a method for publishing and receiving HTML pages.

Network
HTTP client HTTP server

Visits www.huawei.com.

Returns the HTML file of the page.

 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Transport Layer
A transport layer protocol receives data from an application layer protocol, encapsulates the data with the
corresponding transport layer protocol header, and helps establish an end-to-end (port-to-port) connection.
PDUs transmitted at the transport layer are called segments.

Application
Layer
Transport layer protocols:
Transport TCP: a connection-oriented reliable
Layer
protocol defined by IETF in RFC 793.
(Segment)
UDP: a simple connectionless protocol
Network Layer defined by IETF in RFC 768.

Data Link Layer

Physical Layer
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

TCP and UDP - Header Formats

Source Port (16) Destination Port (16)
Sequence Number (32)
Acknowledgement Number (32) TCP header
Header Reserved Control Window (16) 20 bytes
Length (4) (6) Bits (6)

Checksum (16) Urgent (16)

Options
Data (varies)

Source Port (16) Destination Port (16)

UDP header
Length (16) Checksum (16) 8 bytes
Data (if any)
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

TCP and UDP - Port Numbers

Web browser HTTP server

HTTP application Telnet HTTP application Telnet

TCP port 1024 TCP port 1231 TCP port 80 TCP port 23

House number: 1.1.1.1 (IP address) House number: 2.2.2.2 (IP address)

Network

HTTP client HTTP server

Source IP address: 1.1.1.1 Source port number: 1024 HTTP

Destination IP address: 2.2.2.2 Destination port number: 80 Payload

IP header TCP header

• Generally, the source port used by a client is randomly allocated, and the destination port is specified by the application of a
server.
• The system generally selects a source port number that is greater than 1023 and is not being used.
• The destination port number is the listening port of the application (service) enabled on the server. For example, the default port
number for HTTP is 80.
 TCP Connection Setup - Three-Way
Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Handshake
• Before sending data, a TCP-based application needs to establish a connection through three-way
handshake. PC1 PC2
1.1.1.1:1024 2.2.2.2:23

IP header TCP header

Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a Ack=0

Destination=2.2.2.2 (Flags: SYN is set.)

Seq=b Ack=a+1
Source = 2.2.2.2
(Flags: SYN is set, and ACK is
Destination=1.1.1.1
set.)

Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a+1 Ack=b+1

Destination=2.2.2.2 (Flags: ACK is set.)

A TCP connection is established.

 TCP Sequence Number and
Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Acknowledgment Number
TCP uses the Sequence Number and Acknowledgment Number fields to
implement reliable and ordered data transmission.

PC1 PC2
1.1.1.1:1024 2.2.2.2:23
1 A TCP connection is
2
3 established.
4
5
6 … IP header TCP header
… Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a+1 Payload
Destination = 2.2.2.2 Ack=b+1 Length = 12 bytes

Source = 2.2.2.2 Seq=b+1 Payload

Destination = 1.1.1.1 Ack=a+1+12 Length =0 bytes

Data to be sent Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a+13 Payload

Destination = 2.2.2.2 Ack=b+1 Length = 66 bytes Question: Why does the value
of the Acknowledgment
Source = 2.2.2.2 Seq=b+1 Payload Number field in the segment
Destination = 1.1.1.1 Ack=a+12+66 Length = 0 bytes sent by PC1 not increase?
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

TCP Window Sliding Mechanism

TCP uses the sliding window mechanism to control the data transmission rate.

PC1 PC2

Buffer of the receiver

seq=100 win=3 flags=SYN
1
Three-way seq=200 Ack=101 win=3 flags=SYN,ACK
handshake
seq=101 Ack=201 win=3 flags=ACK

Data to be sent
2 seq=101 win=3

Data seq=102 win=3

transmission 3
seq=103 win=3

Question: Why does the

Ack=104 win=1 ctl=ACK 4 Window field of the
segment sent by PC1
seq=104 win=3 remain unchanged?
5
 TCP Shutdown - Four-Way
Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Handshake
After data transmission is complete, TCP needs to use the four-way handshake mechanism to disconnect the TCP
connection and release system resources.

PC1 PC2
1.1.1.1:1024 2.2.2.2:23
A TCP connection is
established.
TCP segment
exchange
IP header TCP header

Sends a Seq=101 Ack=301

Source = 1.1.1.1
1 connection (Flags: FIN is set, and ACK is
Destination = 2.2.2.2
teardown request set.)
with FIN being
set. Source = 2.2.2.2 Seq=301 Ack=102 Sends ACK. 2
Destination = 1.1.1.1 (Flags: ACK is set.)

Seq=301 Ack=102 Sends a

Source = 2.2.2.2
(Flags: FIN is set, and ACK is connection 3
Destination = 1.1.1.1
set.) teardown
request with
Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=102 Ack=302 FIN being set.
4 Sends ACK.
Destination = 2.2.2.2 (Flags: ACK is set.)

The TCP connection is

torn down.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Network Layer
The transport layer is responsible for establishing connections between processes on hosts, and the network
layer is responsible for transmitting data from one host to another.
PDUs transmitted at the network layer are called packets.

Application
Layer

Transport Layer
• The network layer is also called the Internet layer.
Network It sends packets from source hosts to destination hosts.
Layer • Functions of the network layer:
(Packet) Provides logical addresses for network devices.
Routes and forwards data packets.
Data Link Layer Common network layer protocols include IPv4, IPv6,
ICMP, and IGMP.
Physical Layer
 Working Process of a Network Layer
Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Protocol
Packet Encapsulation Packet Forwarding Based on Network Layer Addresses
Letter: data sent by an upper layer (for example, Router 1
the transport layer)
GE0/0/0

PC1 GE0/0/1

PC2

The PC encapsulates the IP header (envelope).

The key information is about source and
destination IP addresses. Network A

Routing table of Router 1 • The network layer header of a packet sent by a source device
carries the network layer addresses of the source and
Outbound destination devices.
Network
Interface • Each network device (such as a router) that has the routing
function maintains a routing table (like a map of the network
Network A GE0/0/1 device).
Envelope: IP packet header • After receiving a packet, the network device reads the
Sender: source IP address … … network layer destination address of the packet, searches the
Receiver: destination IP address routing table for the matching entry of the destination address,
and forwards the packet according to the instruction of the
… …
matching entry.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Data Link Layer

The data link layer is located between the network layer and the physical layer and provides services for
protocols such as IP and IPv6 at the network layer. PDUs transmitted at the data link layer are called frames.
Ethernet is the most common data link layer protocol.

Application
Layer

Transport Layer
The data link layer is located between the network layer and the
Network Layer physical layer.
• The data link layer provides intra-segment communication
Data Link
for the network layer.
Layer
• The functions of the data link layer include framing,
(Frame)
physical addressing, and error control.
Physical Layer • Common data link layer protocols include Ethernet,
PPPoE, and PPP.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Ethernet and Source MAC Addresses

Ethernet Definition Ethernet Source MAC Addresses

Switch A I have a MAC address

when I leave the Name: Host A
factory.
Switch B MAC address/Ethernet address/physical
address:
Host A Host B
Host A

Network A
Host C Host D • A media access control (MAC) address uniquely identifies a NIC
• Ethernet is a broadcast multiple access protocol that works at on a network. Each NIC requires and has a unique MAC address.
• MAC addresses are used to locate specific physical devices in an
the data link layer protocol.
• The network interfaces of PCs comply with the Ethernet IP network segment.
• A device that works at the data link layer, such as an Ethernet
standard.
• Generally, a broadcast domain corresponds to an IP network switch, maintains a MAC address table to guide data frame
segment. forwarding.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):
Discovers the MAC address associated with a given IP address.

ARP request
Destination IP address: 192.168.1.2
Destination MAC address: ?
Host A Host B
192.168.1.1/24 192.168.1.2/24
3C-52-82-49-7E-9D ARP reply 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Source IP address: 192.168.1.2
Source MAC address: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (1)

/3
0/ 0
GE
Host 1 checks cached Host 1 Host 2
ARP entries.
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP

request.
IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2:192.168.1.2/24
MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Host 2 adds an ARP
entry.
1

Host 2 sends an ARP Step 1:

reply.
Host 1>arp -a • Before sending a datagram, a device searches its ARP
Internet Address Physical Address Type table for the destination MAC address of the
Host 1 adds an ARP datagram.
entry.
• If the destination MAC address exists in the ARP
table, the device encapsulates the MAC address in
The ARP cache table the frame and sends out the frame. If the destination
is empty. MAC address does not exist in the ARP table, the
device sends an ARP request to discover the MAC
address.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (2)

/3
0/ 0
GE
Host 1 checks cached Host 1 Host 2
ARP entries.
3 GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP

request.
IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2: 192.168.1.2/24
MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2:48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Host 2 adds an ARP entry.

Step 2:
Host 2 sends an ARP • Host 1 sends an ARP request to discover the
2
reply. Eth_II ARP Request FCS MAC address of Host 2.
• The destination MAC address in the ARP request
is 0 because the destination MAC address is
Host 1 adds an ARP entry.
unknown.
Destination MAC
address: Operation type: ARP request
FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF MAC address of the sender: MAC 1
Source MAC address: IP address of the sender: IP 1 Step 3:
MAC 1 Destination MAC address: 00-00-00-00-00-00 • The ARP request message is a broadcast data
Destination IP address: IP 2 frame. After receiving the ARP request message,
the switch floods it.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (3)

/3
0/ 0
GE
Host 1 checks cached Host 1 Host 2
ARP entries.
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP

request.
IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2: 192.168.1.2/24
MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Host 2 adds an ARP
entry.
4
Step 4:
Host 2 sends an ARP
reply. • After receiving the ARP request message, each host checks Host 2>arp -a
whether it is the destination of the message based on the carried Internet Address Physical Address Type
destination IP address. 192.168.1.1 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D Dynamic
Host 1 adds an ARP
• Host 2 finds that it is the destination of the message and then
entry.
records the mapping between the sender's MAC and IP
addresses in its ARP table.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (4)

/3
0/ 0
GE
Host 1 checks cached Host 1 Host 2
ARP entries. 6
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP

request.
IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2: 192.168.1.2/24
MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Host 2 adds an ARP
entry.
Step 5: 5
Host 2 sends an ARP • Host 2 sends an ARP reply to Host 1.
reply. • In this step, Host 2 has discovered the MAC address of Host 1, so Eth_II ARP Reply FCS
the ARP reply is a unicast data frame.
Host 1 adds an ARP
entry. Destination MAC
address: MAC-1 Operation type: ARP reply
Step 6: Source MAC address: Sender's MAC address: MAC 2
MAC 2 Sender's IP address: IP 2
• After receiving the unicast data frame, the switch forwards the
Receiver's MAC address: MAC 1
frame.
Receiver's IP address: IP 1
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (5)

/3
0/ 0
GE
Host 1 checks cached Host 1 Host 2
ARP entries.
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP

request.
IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2: 192.168.1.2/24
Host 2 adds an ARP MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
entry.
7
Step 7:
Host 2 sends an ARP
reply. Host 1>arp -a • After receiving the ARP reply message, Host 1 checks
Internet Address Physical Address Type whether it is the destination of the message based on the
192.168.1.2 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F Dynamic carried destination IP address.
Host 1 adds an ARP
• If so, Host 1 records the carried sender's MAC and IP
entry.
addresses in its ARP table.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Physical Layer
After data arrives at the physical layer, the physical layer converts a digital signal into an optical signal, an electrical
signal, or an electromagnetic wave signal based on the physical media.
PDUs transmitted at the physical layer are called bitstreams.

Application
Layer

Transport Layer

Network Layer

The physical layer is at the bottom of the model.

Data Link Layer • This layer transmits bitstreams on media.
• It standardizes physical features such as cables, pins, voltages,
Physical Layer and interfaces.
(Bitstream) • Common transmission media include twisted pairs, optical
fibers, and electromagnetic waves.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Common Transmission Media

Fiber Optical module

Twisted pair RJ45 connector

Data transmission through twisted pairs Data transmission through optical fibers
1 2

3 4

Synchronous/asynchronous
serial cable: V.24 on the left and
V.35 on the right PAD Mobile phone Laptop Wireless router

Data transmission between terminal and wireless

Data transmission through serial cables routers through wireless signals
Data Encapsulation on the Sender

DATA Application Layer Data

www.huawei.com

TCP Header DATA Transport Layer Segment

Network Layer Packet

IP Header Payload

Data Link Layer Frame

Eth Header Payload FCS

... Physical Layer Bit

Transmission
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 ...
Media Transmission Media
 Data Transmission on the
Intermediate Network
Encapsulated data is transmitted on the network.
Data

Data

Application Application
Layer Layer

Transport Layer Transport Layer

Network Layer Network Layer
Network Layer
Data Link Layer Data Link Layer Data Link Layer Data Link Layer
Physical Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer
 Data Decapsulation on the Receiver
Application Layer DATA Data
Web server

Transport Layer DATA Segment

e ad e r
TCP H

Network Layer Payload Packet

er
IP Head

Data Link Layer Payload FCS Frame

a de r
Eth He

Physical Layer …… Bit

Transmission 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 ...
Media
Encapsulation and Decapsulation
Processes of the TCP/IP
Sender Recipient
Encapsulation Decapsulation

App User data

Application Application
layer layer
TCP App User data
Transport Transport layer
layer

Internet layer
IP TCP App User data Internet
layer

Network access Eth IP TCP App User data Network access

layer layer

1010101101010100101010001110
Conclusion

TCP/IP is a robust and widely used protocol suite that provides reliable
communication and data transfer between devices on the Internet.
 Quiz
1. What are the benefits of the layered model?
2. What are the common protocols at the application layer, transport layer, network layer, and data link
layer?