ME-485

Introduction to Nuclear
Engineering
Lec. Sadia Khan, NSE Dept., MIST

Content Courtesy:
Syed Mohammod Hossain, Ph.D.
&
Prof. Abdus Sattar Mollah, Ph.D.
Outline of lectures
1. History of Nuclear Physics
2. Atom Models
3. Nuclear structure
4. Categories of nuclide
5. Nuclear stability
6. Binding energy
7. Radioactivity, radioactive decay and half life
8. Modes of decay:  - decay,  - decay,  - decay
9. Interaction of gamma ray with matter
 History of Nuclear Physics
1896 launched Nuclear
Physics by accident

How?

Through the discovery

of “Radioactivity”

Marie and Pierre Curie, and

their boss, Henri Becquerel

 Henri Becquerel placed photographic plates next to

uranium-sulfide crystals, after certain time he
noticed that photographic plates were blackened;
History of Nuclear Physics

 Pierre and Marie Curie chemically isolated the

different radioactive elements produced in the
decay of uranium.

 In 1903, the third Nobel prize for Physics was

awarded to Becquerel, and to Pierre and Marie
Curie;

 Ernest Rutherford performed a series of brilliant

experiments and discovered “Nucleus” in 1911;
 Atom Models

1904 Thomson

1913 Bohr
Thomson’s Atom Model

Rutherford
or Plum Pudding Model

1911
Rutherford Atom Model
or Planetary Model

Bohr Atom Model

Quantum Theory
 Thomson’s Atom Model
British physicist J.J. Thomson in 1897
discovered electron. He proposed an
atom model in 1904:

• An atom was a spherical object in which

all the mass and the entire positive
charges were distributed uniformly.

• Negatively charged particles (electrons)

were embedded like raisins in a pudding.
• Negative charge of electrons are equivalent to
the positive charge of the entire mass and
cancel each other.

Thompson called his model of the atom a "plum pudding"

model
 Rutherford model or planetary model
The gold foil experiment
Associated scientists of Rutherford, Geiger and
Marsden bombarded a thin sheet of gold foil with
positively charged alpha particles.
 Many of the alpha
particles passed through
as expected.
 Many others were
deflected at large angles.
 Others were reflected
back to the alpha source.

Plum pudding model of atom

8 was found incorrect
8
 Rutherford model or planetary model

Rutherford from his famous gold

foil experiment disproved the raisin
pudding model (1911) of Thomson

• He stated that there was an

extremely dense, positive charge
concentrated in a small volume
(nucleus) in central region

• The electrons orbited around the

nucleus like planets around the
sun.
9
 Rutherford model or planetary model
Difficulty
o A charged particle (an electron)
moving with an acceleration radiates
electromagnetic energy; Hydrogen
o According to Rutherford model, the electron in a
hydrogen atom must rapidly lose its energy and
spiral downward and collapse into the proton in an
extremely short time;
o However, the real hydrogen atom seems stable
and does not collapse spontaneously;

o Thus, the Rutherford model of the nuclear atom

brings about a difficulty under the classical theory.
 Bohr Atom Model
Danish scientist Niels Bohr proposed
(1913) an atom model (Quantum Physics-
based modification of Rutherford’s Model)

o The electrons can only travel in

certain orbits
o These orbits are associated with
definite energies and are also called
energy shells or energy levels.
o Electrons can only gain and lose
energy by jumping from one allowed
orbit to another, absorbing or emitting
electromagnetic radiation with a
frequency  determined by the energy
difference: E=E2-E1= h.
11
 Bohr Model
Shortcomings
It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. The Bohr
atomic model theory considers electrons to have both a
known radius and orbit i.e. known position and momentum
at the same time, which is impossible according to
Heisenberg.

The Bohr atomic model theory made correct predictions

for smaller sized atoms like hydrogen, but poor spectral
predictions are obtained when larger atoms are
considered.

It failed to explain the Zeeman effect when the spectral line

is split into several components in the presence of a 12

magnetic field.
Quantum Theory
In 1924, Louis de
Broglie suggested that
particles behave like
waves. In 1926, Erwin
Schrödinger used this
idea to develop a
mathematical model of
the atom that
described electrons as
three dimensional
waveforms rather than
"point" particles. This
was the beginning of
Quantum Mechanics
(or Quantum Theory).
 Orbits labeling
Bohr labeled orbits with numbers – quantum number
Pricipal quantum number: n, where n = 1, 2, 3,…

Maxm no. of electron in

a shell: 2n2

calculates
radius
and
energy of
orbits
Orbits labeling
 Nuclear Structure
Discovery of Neutrons
In 1930 it was discovered that Be, when bombarded by -
particles, emitted a very energetic stream of radiation

Irene Curie and her husband discovered that this radiation

knocked out protons from substance rich in protons (e.g.,
paraffin) which could be easily detected by a Geiger counter.
In 1932, Chadwick proposed that this particle was neutron.
In 1935, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery.
16
 Nuclear Structure
Just after the discovery of neutrons by Chadwick, D.D.
Iwanenko and W.K. Heisenberg independently proposed
an idea that "the atomic nucleus consists of protons and
neutrons" (1932). This was the milestone of Nuclear
Physics.

Proton (Life Time: 1031 yr )

(Charged, qp =1.602110-19 C)
Nucleon mp = 1.007277  0.000001 amu

Neutron (Life Time: 15 min)

(Electrostatically Neutral)
mn = 1.008665  0.000001 amu

17
 Nuclear Structure
Atomic no. Proton no.

p charge = +1 Neutral
e charge = -1 Atom

Orbiting electron
=
proton

Most of the mass of the atom is contained within

the nucleus (>99.9% of the mass of the atom)
 Nuclear Structure
A=Z+N
Atomic mass proton no. neutron no.

Mass of nuclei or atomic

particle is expressed as:
atomic mass unit (amu)
1 amu = 1.66x10-27 kg;
Labeling of nuclear
composition (14C) Reference 12C
 Nuclear Structure

The average radius of a nucleus with A nucleons is:

1
R  Ro A 3 where R0  1.4 fm = 1.410-15 m

Mean density,  of the nuclear matter:

Mn Mn


4R 3
3 or 
 4R03 A 
 3 
 
20
 Nuclear Structure
Nuclear Size & Density

Putting Mn =mnA, where mn =mass of neutron, then:

24
mn 1.64  10
 
 4R03 
 
or 4
3

1.4  10  15 3

 3 
 1.31014 g/cm3 = 1.31017 kg/m3

Thus we see that the density of the nuclear matter is

tremendous and it is independent of the mass number A.

Compare this with the density of ordinary matter

The density of water, for example is 103 kg/m3 21
 Nuclear Structure
Comparison of Atomic and Nuclear Size & Energy

For Atom For Nucleus

Length : 10−10 m 10−15 m = 1 fm

Energy : eV MeV

The typical nuclear sizes are 5 orders of magnitude

smaller than atomic sizes and typical nuclear binding
energies are 6 orders of magnitude greater than
atomic energies.

22
 Nuclear Structure
Categories of Nuclides
Nuclides are usually categorized on the basis of N &
Z numbers and also on the energy levels
 Nuclear stability
Electrostatic repulsion causes the force produced by
particles with the same charge (ie. proton-proton).
what holds the nucleons in the nucleus together? or

How is it that the protons are able to remain in the

nucleus?

Ans: Strong nuclear force (Treats on n & p equally)

Overcomes the electrostatic repulsion between

protons and acts on both protons and neutrons

Acts only on subatomic particles that are extremely

close together and negligible for large distances
 Nuclear stability

The tug-of-war between the strong nuclear force and

the repulsive electrostatic force between protons has
interesting implications for the stability of a nucleus

The most significant factor that determines the

balance between the internal forces and therefore the
nuclear stability is the ratio of the number of neutrons
to the number of protons.

i) n/p ratio and

Why is it that certain combinations
ii) Odd-even
of nucleons are stable in a nucleus
while others are not? nuclei
iii)Magic number
 Nuclear stability
209
Bi83 The band is the area
120
N/p =2 within which all stable
100 Zone of nuclei are found and is
stability
known as the belt of
80 stability.
N
60 If the n/p ratio is too high or
N/p =1 too low, it makes for an
40 unstable nucleus.
For light elements n/p ratio 1
20 40
Ba20 to 1 produces maximum
stability
20 40 60 80 The ratio for stability gradually
Z increases with increasing
atomic number up to a value of
209
Bi83 is the largest ~1.3 to 1.0 for the highest
stable nucleus atomic numbers
Nuclear stability
Nuclear stability
Nuclear stability
 Nuclear stability

There is a particular stability associated with nuclei

in which either the number of protons or the number
of neutrons is equal to one of the so called “magic”
numbers 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126

The nuclear shell model is developed

based on these magic numbers
Nuclear stability
Nuclear stability
 Nuclear Binding Energy
 Nuclear binding energy (B.E.) is the amount
of energy that would be required to break the
nucleus into its individual nucleons.

 The greater the B.E. the more stable the

nuclide will be

 The mass of a nucleus is always less than the

sum of the individual masses of the protons
and neutrons which constitute it.

 The difference is a measure of the nuclear

binding energy which holds the nucleus together.
 Nuclear Binding Energy
B.E. can be calculated from the Einstein relationship:
Nuclear binding energy = Δmc2
For the alpha particle Δm= 0.0304 u which gives a
binding energy of 28.3 MeV.
Nuclear binding energy per nucleon curve

Fe group of
isotopes are
mostly tightly
Elements heavier
bound.
than Fe can yield
56
Fe(8.8Mev)
energy by fission

Fusion yield

Average mass of
fission fragments
~ 118
Nuclear binding energy per nucleon curve

The stability of Iron 56 results from the fact that an

Iron 56 nucleus has a diameter about equal to the
range of the nuclear force.

In an Iron 56 nucleus every nucleon is attracting

every other nucleon. If we go to a nucleus larger than
Iron 56, then neighboring nucleons still attract each
other, but protons on opposite sides of the nucleus
now only repel each other.

This repulsion between distant protons leads to less

binding energy per particle and instability
Radioactivity, radioactive decay and half-life
What is radioactivity?

The terms "radiation" and "radioactivity" are often

confused. The proper relationship between the
terms is that "radioactive atoms emit radiation".

Radioactivity is the process by which unstable

atomic nuclei decay.

This process normally produces ionizing

radiation with a relatively large amount of energy.
 Radioactive decay
o Random and spontaneous breakdown of an
unstable atom is known as radioactive decay or
radioactive disintegration.
o Radioactivity is completely unaffected by the
temperature, pressure, physical or chemical state of
the atoms.
o In the breakdown process of unstable nucleus,
energy is released by the emission of ionizing
radiations.

Three types of radiations:

o alpha
o beta
o gamma
 Radioactive decay
Radioactive decay is governed by statistics, so it is
very easy to predict the decay pattern of a large
number of radioactive nuclei.
The rate at which nuclei decay is proportional to
the number of nuclei:

dN N = No. of radioactive nuclei

decay  N
dt  = decay constant

Integrate this equation to get

 t
N (t )  N 0e Exponential decay law

This equation tells how many objects there are at

a particular time t.
 Half-life

 Time required for half of sample to decay;

 It is a measure of the stability of an isotope;
 The shorter the half life, the less stable the atom.

It is closely related to ln 2 0.693

t1  
the decay constant  2  

The decay constant  1

is closely related to 
the mean life time  
 Half-life
The activity of a sample of radioactive material is
measured in disintegrations per second
SI unit is Becquerel (Bq); 1 Bq = 2.703x10-11 Ci
Historical unit is Curie (Ci); 1 Ci = 3.7x1010 dps
Problem:
Suppose you have I-131 radioisotopes (half-life ~ 8 days)
produced on 10 March 2017 at 11:00am having the activity
of 10 mCi. Calculate the activity on 10 April 2017 at 11:00
am.  t d
Solution:
tA Ae 0
ln 2
( )31day
At 10 mCi e 8 day

= 0.682 mCi
 Modes of decay
Alpha decay
 An alpha particle is a He-4 nucleus;
 Preferred mode of decay at high atomic number, Z>83.

In losing an alpha particle the Z Z 2

nucleus loses four units of
mass and two units of charge, A A4

238 234
92U Th
90 +
4
2 He

92 protons 90 protons 2 protons

146 neutrons 144 neutrons 2 neutrons
They travel short distances, have large mass
 Modes of decay
Beta decay
Beta decay is one process that unstable atoms can use to
become more stable.

A beta particle is often an electron but can also be a

positron.

In the case of electron emission, it is referred to as

beta minus (β−), while in the case of a positron
emission as beta plus (β+).
 Modes of decay
Beta decay

n  p   e   e

p   n  e  

Both alpha and beta decays change the original

nucleus into a nucleus of a different chemical element.
 Modes of decay
Beta decay

Why each such event is accompanied by emission

of an electron neutrino or antineutrino?

  Lepton number (LN)

n p e not ok
is not conserved

Lepton
n  p  e  e
 
ok Why? number is
conserved

LN = 0 0 1 -1 How?
Baryons Leptons
Beta decay Most common pure beta emitters
Nuclide Half-life Max. beta energy
(keV)
H
3
12.33 y 19
14
C 5730 y 156
32
P 14.282 d 1710
35
S 87.51 d 167
36
Cl 3.01e+5 y 1142
45
Ca 163.8 d 257
63
Ni 100.1 y 66
90
Sr 28.5 y 546
90
Y 2.671 d 2282
99
Tc 2.13e+5 y 294
147
Pm 2.6234 y 225
204
Tl 3.78 y 763
 + or positron decay (Annihilation)
Positron has a short half-life, it is rapidly slowed in matter
until it reaches a very low, close to zero, kinetic energy.

Positrons are anti particles to electrons, and the slowed

positron will inevitably find itself near an electron. The
couple may exist for a short time as positronium. Then the
process of annihilation occurs.

Both positron and electron disappear and two photons are

produced, each with energy equal to 0.511 MeV, the
electron rest mass.

These photons are called annihilation radiation and are a

common component of gamma spectra.
 + or positron decay

atomic electron
photon
e+ + e- 511 keV

positron
511 keV
Before annihilation After annihilation

To conserve momentum the two 511 keV photons will be

emitted at 180o to each other
 Electron Capture
When a radionuclide is proton rich, but has energy
less than 1.022 MeV, then it decays by electron
capture. In the process, an electron from K-shell, is
captured by a proton in the nucleus to produce a
neutron, and a neutrino is emitted to conserve energy.
p+e →n+−
111
49 In  e  Cd  
 111
48

k0- X-ray

M
M
L
K K L
Nucleus Z Nucleus Z-1

Electron capture X-ray emission

 Electron Capture
Note that when the transition energy is less than
1.022 MeV, the radionuclide definitely decays by
electron capture.

However, when the transition energy is more than

1.022 MeV, the radionuclide can decay by positron
emission and/or electron capture.

The greater the transition energy above 1.022 MeV,

the more likely the radionuclide will decay by
positron emission.
 Gamma emission
Gamma ray emits usually by de-excitation of a nuclear level
In case of 60Co many gamma transitions are involved
60
Co (5.272 year)
β1(99.88%)
The great majority of beta 2505.7 keV
β2
decays go to the 2505.7 keV
level which fall to the ground (0.12%) 1
state in two steps and two 1332.5 keV
gamma rays appear: 2
0
1 = 2505.7-1332.5 = 1173.2 keV 60
Ni
2 = 1332.5-0 = 1332.5 keV
The decay scheme of 60Co
These two gamma rays are
said to be cascade
60
Co = 60Ni+β-+anti-neutrino
 Gamma emission
Pure Gamma emission occurs when an isotope
exists in two different forms, called nuclear isomers,
having identical atomic numbers and mass numbers,
but different in nuclear-energy content.

 = 140 keV
 Gamma emission
In the electromagnetic spectrum, gammas sit at the high
energy, short wave length as shown below.
104
102 Radio waves LW, MW, SW, FM
1
Microwaves Molecular rotations
10-2
10-4 Infra-red Molecular vibrations
10-3 10-6 Valency electron transitions
Visible
10-1 10-8 ultraviolet Loss of valency electrons
10 10-10 Core electron transitions
X-rays
103
10 -12
-radiation Nuclear transitions
105
10 -14

Energy (keV) Wave length (m) Region Phenomena

 Gamma emission
Since Gamma radiation can penetrate very far into
a material and has the ability to disrupt chemical
bonds, it is Gamma radiation that poses the most
danger when working with radioactive materials.

The penetrating capability of alpha, beta and

gamma ray is demonstrated.
 Gamma attenuation
The linear attenuation coefficient of a radiation in an
absorber has the unit of cm−1 and normally decreases
with the energy and increases with the atomic number
and density of the absorber. If a photon beam I0 passes
through an absorber of thickness x, then the
transmitted beam (It) is given by
 l x
I t I 0e
 Interactions of gamma ray

Gamma radiations
- originating from the nucleus
- uncharged
- produce very little ionization
(1.5 ion pairs per cm of path in air)
- highly penetrating
- Detection depend upon types of interactions which
transferring their energies totally or partially to
electrons within the detector material
 Interactions of gamma ray
Three principle effects are important for the absorption
of gamma radiation in detector materials:
Photoelectric effect: Ec
E
dominant effect in low energy electron
range (up to several hundred keV) -ray

Compton Scattering:
Predominant effect at
intermediate energies

1
e- (Electron)
(incident L
gamma ray) K
Pair production:
Dominant at high energies>5-10 MeV e+ (positron)
Minimum energy required ~ 1.02 MeV
2 annihilation gamma rays (511 keV)
 Photon interaction with a detector

• Double escape
peak from the two
annihilation photons
which do not further
interact in the
detector

• Single escape  Other is totally absorbed

peak from the
escape of one  appears ~ 0.511 MeV below
annihilation photon the photo peak