Developmental Biology

Biol.
Credit Hours: 3 (3 theoretical classes
week)
Course Category: Major Elective course)
Target Group: Applied Biology(Year III,
Semester I, Academic Year, 2023)
Course instructor: (Alemayehu E. (PhD
 1. Embryonic development
1.1 Definition of embryology
• Embryology is the study of how embryos form.
 Embryo in animals (humans), is a developing individual from
the time the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm have all
formed at about 16 days, through the end of 8 weeks when all
organ systems are represented; preceded(come first) by the
preembryo and followed by the fetus.
o In other animals, any unborn stage of development beginning
with the two-celled stage. Compare conceptus; fetus; pre-
embryo.
 Embryo in plant is the initial developmental stage: a plant in its earliest
stages of development. In seed-bearing plants, the embryo is contained within
the seed.
o The embryo is a diploid structure and product of
fertilization of the haploid male and female gametes. The
embryo itself is a miniature (small) version of the plant,
with one (monocots) or two (dicots) cotyledons (or
scutellum in monocots),
 Conti
• Embryology is the study of the development of an
animal from the fertilized egg to birth or hatching or
• embryology is the scientific study of prenatal
development, from fertilization to birth.
• The study of animal development from the fertilized
egg to the formation of all major organ
 In plants deals with all events starting from
microsporogenesis (formation of microspores, pollen
sac), megasporogenesis ( meiosis of four
megasopres, cytokines, , pollination and fertilization
till the development of mature embryo
1.2 Embryonic development in plants and animals
 1.2.1 Embryonic development in animals
 Animal (Human) development is divided into three stages
called the preembryonic, embryonic, and fetal stages
I. The preembryonic stage begins with the zygote (fertilized
egg) and lasts about 16 days. It involves three main
processes:
(a) cleavage, or cell division;
(b) implantation, in which the conceptus becomes
embedded (surrounded) in the mucosal lining
(endometrium) of the uterus; and
(3) embryogenesis, in which the embryonic cells migrate and
differentiate into three tissue layers called the ectoderm,
mesoderm, and endoderm—collectively known as the
primary germ layers.
 Once these layers exist, the individual is called an embryo
 II. The embryonic stage
The embryonic stage extends from day 17 until the
end of week 8.
 It is a stage in which the primary germ layers
develop into the rudiments of all the organ
systems.
o When all of the organ systems are represented
(even though not yet functional), the individual is
considered a fetus.
III. The fetal stage of development extends
from the beginning of week 9 until birth. This is a
stage in which the organs grow, differentiate, and
become capable of functioning outside the
mother’s body.
 . Preembryonic Stage
 The three major events of the preembryonic stage are
cleavage, implantation, and embryogenesis.
1.2.1.1 A. CLEAVAGE
 Cleavage consists of mitotic divisions that occur in the
first 3 days after fertilization, dividing the zygote into
smaller and smaller cells called blastomeres.
 It begins as the conceptus migrates down the uterine
tube (fig.).
 The first cleavage occurs in about 30 hours.
 Blastomeres divide again at shorter and shorter time
intervals, doubling the number of cells each time.
 In the early divisions, the blastomeres divide
simultaneously, but as cleavage progresses they become
less synchronized (harmonized).
 Conti
 By the time the conceptus arrives in the uterus, about 72
hours after ovulation, it consists of 16 or more cells and has a
bumpy surface similar to a mulberry—hence it is called a
morula.
 The morula is no larger than the zygote; cleavage merely
produces smaller and smaller blastomeres.
 This increases the ratio of cell surface area to volume, which
favors efficient nutrient uptake and waste removal, and it
produces a larger number of cells from which to form different
embryonic tissues.
 The morula lies free in the uterine cavity for 4 or 5 days and
divides into 100 cells or so. It becomes a hollow sphere called
the blastocyst, with an internal cavity called the blastocoel.
 The wall of the blastocyst is a layer of squamous cells called
the trophoblast, which is destined (designed) to form part of
the placenta and play an important role in nourishing the
embryo.
 1.2.1.Cleavage morula formation
 Morula is a stage in the embryonic development of some animals that
consists of a solid ball of cells (blastomeres).
 The development of a human being can be divided into prenatal
(“before birth”) and postnatal (“after birth”) periods.
 During the prenatal period, the developing individual begins life as a
zygote, then becomes a ball of cells called a morula, and eventually
becomes a blastocyst that implants in the endometrium.
o From two weeks after fertilization until the end of the eighth week of
its existence, the individual is called an embryo.
o From nine weeks until birth, it is a fetus. During or after birth, it is
called a newborn, or baby.
o Pregnancy is arbitrarily divided into three-month periods called
trimesters.
o The first trimester begins at fertilization, and during this time most of
the organs are formed.
o The next two trimesters are mainly periods of growth for the fetus.
Early Stages in Human Development.
 IMPLANTATION
 About 6 days after ovulation, the blastocyst attaches to the
endometrium, usually on the “ceiling” or on the dorsal
wall of the uterus.
 The process of attachment, called implantation, begins
when the blastocyst adheres to the endometrium (fig.).
 The trophoblast cells on this side separate into two layers.
a. In the superficial layer, in contact with the endometrium,
the plasma membranes break down and the trophoblast
cells fuse into a multinucleate mass called the
syncytiotrophoblast . A syncytium is any body of
protoplasm containing multiple nuclei.)
b. The deep layer, close to the embryoblast, is called the
cytotrophoblast because it retains individual cells divided
by membranes.
 Conti.
• The syncytiotrophoblast grows into the uterus like little
roots, digesting endometrial cells along the way.
 The endometrium reacts to this injury by growing over
the trophoblast and eventually covering it, so the
conceptus becomes completely buried in endometrial
tissue.
 Implantation takes about a week and is completed
about the time the next menstrual period would have
occurred if the woman had not become pregnant
Fig 2. Implantation. (a) Structure of the blastocyst about 6 to 7 days after
ovulation.
(b) The progress of implantation about 1 day later.
The syncytiotrophoblast has begun growing rootlets, which penetrate the
endometrium
The Implanted Conceptus at 16 Days. The primary germ layers and
extraembryonic membranes have formed, and the conceptus is now
an embryo
 EMBRYOGENESIS
 During implantation, the embryoblast undergoes
embryogenesis— arrangement of the blastomeres into
the three primary germ layers.
 At the beginning of this phase, the embryoblast
separates slightly from the trophoblast, creating a
narrow space between them called the amniotic cavity.
 The embryoblast flattens into an embryonic disc
(blastodisc) composed of two cell layers:
o The epiblast facing the amniotic cavity & the hypoblast
facing away.
 Some hypoblast cells multiply and form a membrane called the
yolk sac enclosing the blastocoel.
 Now the embryonic disc is flanked (edged, lined) by two spaces:
the amniotic cavity on one side & the yolk sac on the other
 The First Trimester
• After fertilization, usually in the upper third of
the uterine tube, the zygote goes through
several cleavages as it moves down the tube
(figure).
• It eventually becomes a solid ball of cells called a
morula, and by the fourth day, it develops into a
50- to 120-cell blastula stage called a blastocyst.
The second trimester (weeks 13 through 24)

 is a period in which the organs complete most

of their development.
 It becomes possible with sonography to see
good anatomical detail in the fetus.
 By the end of this trimester, the fetus looks
distinctly human, and with intensive clinical
care,
o infants born at the end of the second trimester
have a chance of survival.
 3. The third trimester (weeks 25 to birth)
 the fetus grows rapidly and the organs achieve enough
cellular differentiation to support life outside the womb.
 Some organs, such as the brain, liver, and kidneys,
however, require further differentiation after birth to
become fully functional.
 At 35 weeks from fertilization, the fetus typically weighs
about 2.5 kg.
It is considered mature at this weight, and usually survives
if born early.
 Most twins are born at about 35 weeks’ gestation.
 From a more biological than clinical standpoint, human
development is divided into three stages called the
preembryonic, embryonic, and fetal stages
 Summary
Stage Age* Major Developments and Defining Characteristics
Preembryonic
Stage
Zygote 0-30 hrs A single diploid cell formed by the union of egg and sperm

Cleavage 30-72hrs Mitotic division of the zygote into smaller, identical

blastomeres
Morula 3-4 days A spherical stage consisting of 16 or more blastomeres

Blastocyst A fluid-filled, spherical stage with an outer mass of trophoblast

4-16 cells and inner mass of embryoblast cells; becomes implanted
days in the endometrium; inner cell mass forms an embryonic disc
and differentiates into the three primary germ layers

Embryonic 16 days- A stage in which the primary germ layers differentiate into
stage 8 weeks organs and organ systems; ends when all organ
systems are present

Fetal stage 8-40 A stage in which organs grow and mature at a cellular level to
 1.2.1.3. Gastrulation and formation of body layers
 The next stage of development occurs when the blastocyst
adheres to the uterine wall and implants.
o During implantation, the outer cells of the blastocyst,
called the trophoblast, invade the endometrium.
 Implantation is usually completed 11 to 12 days after
fertilization; from then on, the female is considered to be
pregnant.
o One of the unique features of mammalian development
is that most of the cells of the early embryo make no
contribution to the embryo’s body, giving rise instead
o to supportive and protective membranes. Only the inner
cell mass gives rise to the embryonic body.
 Eventually, these cells arrange in a flat sheet that
undergoes a gastrulation similar to that of reptiles and
birds.
 Conti
During gastrulation epiblast cells multiply and
migrate medially toward the primitive streak
and down into it.
These cells replace the original hypoblast with a
layer now called the endoderm, which will
become the inner lining of the digestive tract,
among other things.
A day later, migrating epiblast cells form a third
layer between the first two, called the
mesoderm (fig.).
Once this is formed, the epiblast is called
ectoderm.
 Conti
Thus, the three primary germ layers all arise
from the original epiblast.
The ectoderm and endoderm are epithelia
composed of tightly joined cells, but the
mesoderm is a more loosely organized tissue.
The mesoderm later differentiates into a loose
fetal connective tissue called mesenchyme, from
which such tissues as muscle, bone, and blood
develop.
Mesenchyme is composed of fibroblasts and fine,
wispy collagen fibers embedded in a gelatinous
ground substance.
 Conti
• Once the three primary germ layers are formed,
embryogenesis is complete and the individual is
considered an embryo.
• It is about 2 mm long and 16 days old at this
point
Gastrulation. (a) Dorsal view of the embryonic disc at 16 days; epiblast cell
migration indicated by arrows.
(b) Cross section of the embryonic disc at the level indicated in a. Mesoderm arises
from epiblast cells that migrate into the primitive streak; the remaining epiblast
cells become ectoderm
 1.2.1.4.Organogenesis
Once gastrulation is completed, the rest of the
first trimester is devoted to organogenesis and
growth (figure).
Regulatory events and inductive-tissue
interactions shape most of the organ systems.
o By the middle of the first trimester, all of the
major body systems have begun to develop
EMBRYONIC FOLDING AND ORGANOGENESIS
o In week 4, the embryo grows rapidly and folds
around the yolk sac, converting the flat
embryonic disc into a somewhat cylindrical form
 Conti.
As the cephalic and caudal ends curve around
the ends of the yolk sac, the embryo becomes C-
shaped, with the head and tail almost touching
(fig.).
o The lateral margins of the disc fold around the
sides of the yolk sac to form the ventral surface
of the embryo.
o This lateral folding encloses a longitudinal
channel, the primitive gut, which later becomes
the digestive tract.
o As a result of embryonic folding, the entire
surface is covered with ectoderm, which
 Conti
o later produces the epidermis of the skin.
In the meantime, the mesoderm splits into two
layers. One of them adheres to the ectoderm
and the other to the endoderm,
o thus opening a space called the coelom (SEE-
loam) between them.
The coelom becomes divided into the thoracic
cavity and peritoneal cavity by a wall, the
diaphragm.
By the end of week 5, the thoracic cavity further
subdivides into pleural and pericardial cavities.
 Conti.
o The formation of organs and organ systems
during this time is called organogenesis.
o Table 1 lists the major tissues and organs that
arise from each primary germ layer
Embryonic Folding. Transformation from a flat embryonic disc to a more rounded
and curled body, enclosing a body cavity and digestive tract (gut). Figures a–c are
longitudinal sections
Figures d–f are cross sections. Arrows indicate the directions of embryonic folding at the cephalic and
caudal ends in a–b and the lateral margins in d–e.
Note the progressive narrowing of the connection between the yolk sac and primitive gut as the
embryo folds and the gut becomes regionally differentiated.
Derivatives of the three Primary germ layers
Layer Major Derivatives
Ectoderm Epidermis; hair follicles and piloerector muscles; cutaneous
glands; nervous system; adrenal medulla; pineal and pituitary
glands; lens, cornea, and intrinsic muscles of the eye; internal and
external ear; salivary glands; epithelia of the nasal cavity, oral
cavity, and anal canal

Mesoderm Dermis; skeleton; skeletal, cardiac, and most smooth muscle;

cartilage; adrenal cortex; middle ear; blood and lymphatic
vessels; blood; bone marrow; lymphoid tissue; epithelium of
kidneys, ureters, gonads, genital ducts; mesothelium of ventral
body cavity
 EMBRYONIC MEMBRANES
 The conceptus develops a number of accessory organs external to
the embryo itself. These include the placenta, umbilical cord, and
four embryonic membranes—the amnion, yolk sac, allantois,
and chorion (fig. ).
Amnion
 The amnion is a transparent sac that develops from epiblast cells
of the embryonic disc.
 It grows to completely enclose the embryo and is penetrated only
by the umbilical cord.
 The amnion becomes filled with amniotic fluid, which enables the
embryo to
develop symmetrically; keeps its surface tissues from adhering
to each other; protects it from trauma (shock), infection, and
temperature fluctuations; allows the freedom of movement
important to muscle development; and plays a role in normal
lung development.
 Conti
 At first, the amniotic fluid forms by filtration of the
mother’s blood plasma, but beginning at 8 to 9 weeks,
the fetus urinates into the amniotic cavity about once
an hour and contributes substantially to the fluid volume.
 The volume remains stable, however, because the fetus
swallows amniotic fluid at a comparable rate. At term,
the amnion contains 700 to 1,000 mL of fluid
Yolk sac
 The yolk sac, arises from cells of the embryonic
hypoblast opposite the amnion.
o Initially it is larger than the embryo and is broadly
connected to almost the entire length of the primitive
gut.
 Conti
o During embryonic folding, however, its connection to the
gut becomes constricted and reduced to a narrow passage
called the vitelline duct
o Since the embryo continues growing long after the yolk sac
stops, the yolk sac becomes a relatively small pouch
suspended from the ventral side of the embryo.
o It produces the first blood cells and the stem cells of
gametogenesis.
 These cells migrate by ameboid movement into the
embryo, where the blood cells colonize the bone marrow
and other tissues, and the gametogenic stem cells
colonize the future gonads.
 Allantois
 The allantois is initially an out pocketing of the yolk sac;
eventually, as the embryo grows, it becomes an outgrowth of
the caudal end of the gut connected to it by the allantoic duct.
 It forms a foundation for growth of the umbilical cord and
becomes part of the urinary bladder.
Chorion
 The chorion is the outermost membrane, enclosing all the rest
of the membranes and the embryo.
 Initially it has shaggy (hairy) processes called chorionic villi
around its entire surface.
 As the pregnancy advances, the villi on the placental side grow
and branch, and this surface is then called the villous chorion.
The villous chorion forms the fetal portion of the placenta.
 The villi degenerate over the rest of the surface, which is then
called the smooth chorion
Development of the Embryo from 37 to 56 Days.
At 56 days (8 weeks), all organ systems are present and the
individual begins the fetal phase
The Embryonic Membranes. Frontal section of the uterus
with an 8-week fetus and accessory organs.
1st to 40 weeks of embryonic development (Major Events of Prenatal Dev’t)
End of Crown-to-Rump Developmental Events
week Length; Weight

Vertebral column and central nervous

4 0.6 cm; 1 g
system begin to form; limbs represented by
small limb buds; heart begins beating
around day 22; no visible eyes, nose, or ears

Eyes form, eyelids fused shut; nose flat,

nostrils evident but plugged with mucus;
8 3 cm; 1 g head nearly as large as the rest of the body;
brainwaves detectable; bone calcification
begins; limb buds form paddle like hands and
feet with ridges called digital rays, which
then separate into distinct fingers and toes;
 Conti
End Crown-to-Rump Developmental Events
of Length; Weight
week

Eyes well developed, facing laterally; eyelids still

fused; nose develops bridge; external ears present;
limbs well formed, digits exhibit nails; fetus
12 9 cm; 45 g swallows amniotic fluid and produces urine; fetus
moves, but too weakly for mother to feel it; liver is
prominent and produces bile; palate is fusing;
sexes can be distinguished

Eyes face anteriorly, external ears stand out from

head, face looks more distinctly human; body
16 14 cm; 200 g larger in proportion to head; skin is bright pink,
scalp has hair; joints forming; lips exhibit sucking
movements; kidneys well formed; digestive glands
 Conti
End Crown-to-Rump Developmental Events
of Length; Weight
week

Body covered with fine hair called lanugo and cheese like
sebaceous secretion called vernix caseosa, which protects
20 19 cm; 460 g it from amniotic fluid; skin bright pink; brown fat forms
and will be used for postpartum heat production; fetus is
now bent forward into “fetal position” because of
crowding; quickening occurs—mother can feel fetal
movements

24 23 cm; 820 g Eyes partially open; skin wrinkled, pink, and translucent;
lungs begin producing surfactant; rapid weight gain

28 27 cm; 1,300 g Eyes fully open; skin wrinkled and red; full head of hair
present; eyelashes formed; fetus turns into upside-down
vertex position;
testes begin to descend into scrotum; marginally viable if
born at 28 weeks
Growth of fetus
 Placenta
 Nutrients from the mother’s blood diffuse through the placenta into the
fetal blood.
 The placenta is a vascular organ attached to the uterine wall on one side
and, on the other side, connected to the fetus by way of the umbilical
cord.
 It begins to develop about 11 days after conception, becomes the
dominant mode of nutrition around the beginning of week 9, and is the
sole mode of nutrition from the end of week 12 until birth.
 The period from week 9 until birth is called the placental phase of the
pregnancy.
Placentation
 Placentation, the development of a placenta, begins when extensions of
the syncytiotrophoblast, the first chorionic villi, penetrate more and
more deeply into the endometrium, like the roots of a tree penetrating
into the nourishing “soil” of the uterus (fig. ).
 As they digest their way through uterine blood vessels, the villi become
surrounded by pools of free blood.
 Conti
 These pools eventually merge to form a blood-
filled cavity, the placental sinus.
o Exposure to maternal blood stimulates
increasingly rapid growth of the villi, which
become branched and treelike.
o Embryonic mesenchyme grows into the villi and
gives rise to the blood vessels that connect to
the embryo by way of the umbilical cord
• The umbilical cord connects the fetus to the
placenta and it contains two umbilical arteries
and one umbilical vein
 1.2.2 Embryonic development in plants
Embryology is the study of micro and mega
sporogenesis, gametophyte development,
fertilization development of endosperm,
embryo and seed coats.