DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHM
Dr. Muhammad Idrees
1
01
1
1 0
2 1 0
3 .0
4 10
5 Q 1 0
6 01 0
7 3
8 01 0
1 0.
1 Qq.
2 qQq
3 1 A1z
Books to Follow
2
D.S.Malik, “Data Structures using C++”
D.Samanta, “Classic Data Structures”, Prentice
Hall
Tenenbaum, M.Augenstein, and Y. Langman, “Data
Structures using C and C++”, Prentice Hall.
Some General Comments
3
Encouragement to ask questions during class
Without your feedback, it is impossible for me to
know what you don’t know?
There is no reason not to ask questions during class
Of course, you could also send email.
Encouragement to read course material prior to class
Kindly switch off your Mobile Phones during class
4 Introduction to Data Structure
A data structure is a particular way of storing and
organizing data in a computer so that it can be
used efficiently
Need for Data Structures
Data structures organize data more
efficient programs.
More powerful computers more
complex applications.
More complex applications demand
more calculations.
Organizing Data
Any organization for a collection of
records that can be searched,
processed in any order, or modified.
The choice of data structure and
algorithm can make the difference
between a program running in a few
seconds or many days.
What is Data Structure?
7
Data structure is a representation of data and the
operations allowed on that data.
A data structure is a way to store and organize data
in order to facilitate the access and modifications.
Data Structure is the method of representing of
logical relationships between individual data
elements related to the solution of a given problem.
Fundamental Data Structures
8
Basic Data Structures
Linear Data Non-Linear Data Structures
Structures
Arrays Linked Stack Queues Graphs Trees Hash Tables
Lists s
array
Linked list
queue
tree stack
Linear Data Structures
10
A data structure is said to be linear if its elements
form a sequence or a linear list.
Examples:
Arrays
Linked Lists
Stacks
Queues
Non-Linear Data Structures
11
A data structure is said to be non-linear if its
elements does not form a sequence or a linear list.
Examples:
Trees
Graphs
Hash Tables
Each element may be connected with two or more
other nodes or items in a non-linear arrangement.
Operations on Data Structures
12
Traversal: Travel through the data structure
Search: Traversal through the data structure for a given
element
Insertion: Adding new elements to the data structure
Deletion: Removing an element from the data structure
Sorting: Arranging the elements in some type of order
Merging: Combining two similar data structures into
one
13 Linear Data Structures
Arrays
Linked List
Stacks
Queues
Arrays
14
A sequence of n items of the same data type that are
stored contiguously in computer memory and made
accessible by specifying a value of the array’s index.
Properties:
fixed length (need preliminary reservation of memory)
contiguous memory locations
direct access
Insert/delete
a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4] a[5] a[6] a[7] a[8] a[9]
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Array a with 10 integer elements
Linked List
15
A sequence of zero or more nodes each containing two kinds of
information: some data and one or more links called pointers to
other nodes of the linked list.
Properties
dynamic length
arbitrary memory locations
access by following links
Insert/delete
Types of Linked List
Singly linked list (next pointer)
Doubly linked list (next + previous pointers)
Stacks
16
A stack is a data structure that uses last-in, first-out
(LIFO) ordering and allows reading and writing on
the top element only.
Properties
insertion/deletion can be done only at the top
LIFO
Two operations
Push (insertion)
Pop (removal)
Queues
17
Collection with access only to the item that has been
present the longest
Properties
Insertion/enqueue from the rear (back) and deletion/
dequeue from the front.
FIFO
Two operations
Enqueue
Dequeue
Front 20 30 10 60 57 29 Back
18 Non-Linear Data Structures
Graphs
Trees
Hash Tables
Graphs
19
Formal definition: A graph G = <V, E> is defined by a
pair of two sets: a finite set V of items called vertices and a set
E of vertex pairs called edges.
Undirected and directed graphs (digraphs).
Complete, dense, and sparse graphs
Undirected Graph Directed Graph
Trees
20
A Tree is a way of representing the
hierarchical nature of a structure in a
graphical form.
Properties of trees
Root Node
Child Node
Parent Node Ordered Tree
Leaf Node
Types
Unordered Tree
Binary Tree is an ordered tree data
structure in which each node has at most
two children.
Binary Tree
Hash Tables
21
A hash table is a data structure that uses a hash
function to map identifying values, known as keys
(e.g., a person's name), to their associated values.
Summary
22
A data structure is a particular way of storing and organizing
data in a computer so that it can be used efficiently.
Linear Data Structures
Arrays
Linked List
Stacks
Queues
Non Linear Data Structures
Graphs
Trees
Hash Tables
Selecting a Data
Structure
Select a data structure as follows:
1. Analyze the problem to determine
the resource constraints a solution
must meet.
2. Determine the basic operations that
must be supported. Quantify the
resource constraints for each
operation.
3. Select the data structure that best
meets these requirements.
Data Structure Philosophy
Each data structure has costs and
benefits.
Rarely is one data structure better
than another in all situations.
A data structure requires:
space for each data item it stores,
time to perform each basic operation,
programming effort.
25 Introduction to Algorithms
A precise rule (or set of rules) specifying
how to solve some problem.
What is an Algorithm?
26
An algorithm is a sequence of unambiguous
instructions for solving a problem, i.e., for
obtaining a required output for any legitimate input
in a finite amount of time.
Properties
Can be represented various forms
Unambiguity/clearness
Effectiveness
Finiteness/termination
Correctness
What is an Algorithm?
27
Recipe, process, method, technique, procedure, routine,
… with the following requirements:
1. Finiteness
terminates after a finite number of steps
2. Definiteness
rigorously and unambiguously specified
3. Clearly specified input
valid inputs are clearly specified
4. Clearly specified/expected output
can be proved to produce the correct output given a valid input
5. Effectiveness
steps are sufficiently simple and basic
Why Study Algorithms?
28
Algorithms solve problems
Good choice: more efficient programs
Bad choice: poor programs performance
Example:
Problem: Find the largest element ‘k’ out of ‘N’ integers
Easy algorithms: sort all integers, then list the first or last
element
Better algorithm: take first element then read through the list
Different algorithms perform better on different inputs
Input size also affect the performance.
Notion of Algorithm and Problem
29
Problem
Algorithm
Input “Computer” Output
Representation of an Algorithms
30
An algorithm may be represented in different
forms:
A description using English/other languages
A real computer program, e.g. C++ or java
A pseudo-code, C-like program, program-language-
like program.
Program = algorithms + data structures
Basic Issues Related to Algorithms
31
How to design algorithms
How to express algorithms
Proving correctness
Efficiency (or complexity) analysis
Theoretical analysis
Empirical analysis
Optimality
Analysis of Algorithms
32
How good is the algorithm?
Correctness
Time efficiency
Space efficiency
Algorithm Efficiency
33
There are often many algorithms for a given
problem. How do we choose the best?
Goals of program design:
Algorithm is to be easy to understand, code, debug
Algorithm makes efficient use of computer’s resources
How to measure the efficiency?
Empirical comparison (run the program)
Asymptotic algorithm analysis (without running the
program)
Factors affecting running time (size of the input)
Best, Worst and Average Cases
34
Not all inputs of a given size take the same time.
Each algorithm has three cases:
Best case:
Worst Case:
Average Case:
Example: Best, Worst and Average Cases
35
Sequential search for ‘k’ in an array of ‘n’ integers:
Best case: ‘k’ is the first element of the array.
Worst case: the search must visit every element once.
This happens when the value being searched for is
either the last element in the list, or is not in the list
Average case: on average, assuming the value searched
for is in the list and each list element is equally likely
to be the value searched for, the search visits only n/2
elements.
