Methods of Enquiry in

Psychology
 Chapter Objective
 To explain the goals and nature of
psychological enquiry,
 Understand different types of data used by

psychologists,
 Describe some important methods of

psychological enquiry,
 Understand the methods of analyzing data,

and
 Learn about the limitations of

psychological enquiry and ethical

considerations.
What is an Enquiry?
How do we study a

phenomenon?
What are the methods

used in a study?
 GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY

Description
Prediction
Explanation
Control of Behaviour
Application
Description
 In a psychological study, we attempt to
describe a behaviour or a phenomenon as
accurately as possible.
 This helps in distinguishing a particular

behaviour from other behaviours.

 The description requires recording of a

particular behaviour which helps in its

proper understanding.
Prediction
 The second goal of scientific enquiry is
prediction of behaviour.
 If you are able to understand and describe the
behaviour accurately, you come to know the
relationship of a particular behaviour with
other types of behaviours, events, or
phenomena.
 You can then forecast that under certain
conditions this particular behaviour may occur.
 Prediction becomes more accurate with the
increase in the number of persons observed.
Explanation
 The third goal of psychological enquiry is to
know the causal factors or determinants of
behaviour.
 Psychologists are primarily interested in

knowing the factors that make behaviour

occur.
 Also, what are the conditions under which a

particular behaviour does not occur.

 The goal is concerned with identifying the

determinants or antecedent conditions (i.e.

conditions that led to the particular behaviour)
of the behaviour being studied so that cause-
effect relationship between two variables
(objects) or events could be established.
Control
 Ifyou are able to explain why a
particular behaviour occurs, you can
control that behaviour by making
changes in its antecedent conditions.
 Control refers to three things: making

a particular behaviour happen,

reducing it, or enhancing it.
 Example- Changes after a therapy
Application
 The final goal of the scientific enquiry
is to bring out positive changes in the
lives of people.
 Psychological research is conducted to

solve problems in various settings.

 Scientific enquiry is also conducted to

develop new theories or constructs,

which leads to further research.
 Steps in Conducting Scientific Research

 The scientific method attempts to

study a particular event or
phenomenon in an objective,
systematic and testable manner
 The objectivity refers to the fact that if

two or more persons independently

study a particular event, both of them,
to a great extent, should arrive at the
same conclusion.
 Systematic procedure or steps of
investigation includes the
following steps:
1. Conceptualisation of a problem,
2. Collection of data,
3. Drawing conclusions and
4. Revising research conclusions
and theory
(1) Conceptualising a Problem:
 The process of scientific research
begins when a researcher selects a
theme or topic for study.
 Narrowing down the focus and

develops specific research questions

or problems for the study.
 This is done on the basis of review of

past research, observations and

personal experiences.
 In psychology we study a diverse range of
problems related to behaviour and
experiences. These problems may be related
to
1. Understanding our own behaviour (for
example, how do I feel and behave when I
am in a state of joy or grief ?)
2. Understanding other individual’s behaviour
(for example, Is X more intelligent than Y?
Why is someone always not able to
complete her or his work on time? Can the
habit of smoking be controlled?
 3. Group influences on individual behaviour
(for example, Why does a cyclist perform
better when cycling before a group of
persons than when cycling alone?, why does
Rahim spend more time meeting with people
than doing his work?)
 4. Group behaviour (for example, why does

risk-taking behaviour increase when people

are in a group?, Peer Pressure)
 5. Organisational level (for example, why are

some organisations more successful than

others? How can an employer increase the
motivation of employees?)
 After identification of the problem, the
researcher proceeds by developing a
tentative answer of the problem,
which is called hypothesis.
 For example- ‘greater is the amount of time
spent by children in viewing violence on
television, higher is the degree of aggression
displayed by them’.
 In your research, you shall now try to prove

whether the statement is true or false.

(2) Collecting Data:
 Data collection requires developing a
research design or a blueprint of the
entire study.
 It requires taking decisions about the

following four aspects:

 (a) participants in the study,
 (b) methods of data collection,
 (c) tools to be used in research, and
 (d) procedure for data collection
(3) Drawing Conclusions:
 The next step is to analyse data collected
through the use of statistical procedures to
understand what the data mean.
 This can be achieved through graphical

representations (such as preparation of pie-

chart, bar-diagram, cumulative
frequencies, etc.) and by the use of different
statistical methods.
 The purpose of analysis is to verify a

hypothesis and draw conclusions

accordingly.
(4) Revising Research Conclusions:
 After analysing and finding the results, the
researcher checks if the conclusions
support the hypothesis.
 If they do, the existing hypothesis/ theory is

confirmed. If not, s/he will revise or state an

alternative hypothesis/theory and again test
it based on new data and draw conclusions
which may be verified by future researchers.
 Thus, research is a continuous process.
 ACTIVITY

 Conceptualizea research
problem of your interest and
form a hypothesis for the
same.
Alternative Paradigms of Research
 In recent years, a different method known as
interpretive has emerged which emphasises
understanding over explanation and prediction.
 It takes the stand that, in view of complex and
variable nature of human behaviour and
experience, its method of investigation should be
different from the method of investigation of the
physical world.
 Everyone interprets reality in her/his own way
based on past experiences and contexts.
 Need to understand the subjective interpretation of
the reality. The goal here is to explore the different
aspects of human experiences and behaviour
without attempting to disturb its natural flow.
 The psychological enquiry aim
at understanding the self by
reflecting on one’s own
experiences and insights.
 NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DATA
 Psychologists collect a variety of information
from different sources by employing diverse
methods.
 The information collected is called data which

relates to the individual’s covert or overt

behaviour, their subjective experiences and
mental processes.
 The method of data collection (survey, interview,

experiment, etc.) used and the characteristics of

respondents (such as, individual or group,
young or old, male or female, rural or urban,
etc.) also influence the nature and quality of
data.
 Types of Psychological Data:
1) Demographic Information :
This information generally includes personal
information like name, age, gender, birth
order, number of siblings, education,
occupation, marital status, number of children,
locality of residence, caste, religion, parental
education, occupation, and family income, etc.
2) Physical Information:
This category includes information about
ecological conditions (hilly/desert/forest),
mode of economy, housing conditions, etc.
3) Physiological Data:
In some studies physical, physiological and
psychological data are collected about height,
weight, duration of sleep, blood pressure,
etc.
4) Psychological Information:
Areas as intelligence, personality, interest,
values, creativity, emotions, motivation,
psychological disorders, illusions, delusions,
hallucinations, perceptual judgment,
thought processes, consciousness, subjective
experiences, etc.
Some Important Methods In
Psychology
1. Observation Method
2. Experimental Method
3. Correlational Method
4. Survey Method
5. Psychological Testing
6. Case Study
1) Observational Method:
 Observation is a very powerful tool of
psychological enquiry and it is an effective
method of describing behaviour.
 If you carefully observe a person or event for

some time, you come to know many

interesting things about the person or the
event
 A scientific observation differs from day-

to-day observation in many respects

1. Selection:
Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour
that they encounter. Rather, they select a
particular behaviour for observation.
Ex: How children spend time in school.
2. Recording:
While observing, a researcher records the selected
behaviour using different means, such as marking
tallies for the already identified behaviour
whenever they occur, taking notes describing each
activity in greater detail using short hand or
symbols, photographs, video recording, etc.
3. Analysis of Data:
After the observations have been made,
psychologists analyse whatever they have
recorded with a view to derive some meaning
out of it.
 A good observer knows what s/he is looking

for, whom s/he wants to observe, when and

where the observation needs to be made,
in what form the observation will be
recorded, and what methods will be used to
analyse the observed behaviour.
 Types of Observation

Naturalistic vs Non-Participant vs
Controlled Participant
Observation Observation
 (a) Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation:
 When observations are done in a natural or

real-life settings, it is called naturalistic

observation.
 In this case the observer makes no effort to

control or manipulate the situation for making

an observation. This type of observation is
conducted in hospitals, homes, schools, day
care centers, etc.
 Many studies in psychology are conducted in

the laboratory and this type of observation is

called Controlled Laboratory Observation which
is obtained in laboratory experiments. (Box 2.1)
 (b) Non-Participant vs Participant
Observation:
 Observation can be done in two ways. One,

you may decide to observe the person or

event from a distance.
 Two, the observer may become part of the

group being observed.

 In the Non participant observation, the

person being observed may not be aware that

s/he is being observed.
 Ex- Learning teaching patterns in schools
 In participant observation, the observer
becomes a part of the school or the group of
people being observed.
 In participant observation, the observer takes

some time to establish a rapport with the

group so that they start accepting her/him as
one of the group members.
 However, the degree of involvement of the

observer with the group being observed

would vary depending upon the focus of the
study.
 Ex: Studying about a tribal group.
Advantage and Disadvantage
 The advantage of the observation method is
that it enables the researcher to study people
and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation,
as it occurs.
 The observation method is labour intensive,

time consuming, and is susceptible to the

observer’s bias.
 Our observation is influenced by our values

and beliefs about the person or the event.

 We may interpret things in a different way

than what the participants may actually mean.

QUIZ
What is an Enquiry?
 What are the Goals of
enquiry in psychology?
Define Objectivity in
research?
 State the diverse range of
problems related to
behaviour and experiences
while conceptualizing a
research problem?
Define Hypothesis?
 Mention the steps
involved in collecting
data?
What are the steps
in observational
method?
What are the types
of observation?
 State 2 limitations of
observational method in
data collection?
2) Experimental Method:
 Experiments are generally conducted to
establish cause-effect relationship
between two sets of events or variables
in a controlled setting.
 In the experiment, cause is the event

being changed or manipulated. Effect

is the behaviour that changes because
of the manipulation.
What is a Variable?
 Any stimulus or event which varies, that
is, it takes on different values (or
changes) and can be measured is a
variable.
 An object by itself is not a variable. But its
attributes are.
 Ex- Pen, Hair, Room,
 EX-Intelligence is a variable as there are

people with varying levels of intelligence like

high, moderate, low
Types of Variables

Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Extraneous Variable
Independent Variable (IV)
 Independent variable is that variable which is
manipulated or altered or its strength varied
by the researcher in the experiment.
 It is the effect of this change in the variable

which the researcher wants to observe or

note in the study. (Causal Factor)
 Ex- Experiment in box 2.1- The independent

variable was presence or absence of other

persons in the room.
 Dependent Variable
 The variables on which the effect of
independent variable is observed is called
dependent variable.
 Dependent variable represents the

phenomenon the researcher desires to

explain.
 The frequency of reporting of smoke in the

Ex(Box 2.1) was the dependent variable.

 Independent variable is the cause, and

dependent variable the effect in any

experimental situation.
Extraneous Variable
 There are many other relevant or extraneous
variables that influence the dependent
variable, but the researcher may not be
interested in examining their effects.
 These extraneous variables need to be

controlled in an experiment so that a

researcher is able to pin-point the cause and
effect relationship between independent and
dependent variables.
Experimental and Control Groups
 An Experimental Group is a group

in which members of the group are

exposed to independent variable
manipulation.
 The Control Group is a comparison

group that is treated in every way like

the experimental group except that
the manipulated variable is absent in
it.
 Ex-Box 2.1
 In an experiment, except for the experimental
manipulation, other conditions are kept
constant for both experimental and control
groups.
 One attempts to control all those relevant

variables which can influence the dependent

variable. (Extraneous Variables are controlled)
 The distribution of participants to

experimental and control groups are done

randomly, a method that ensures that each
person has an equal chance of being included
in any of the groups.
3 Major types of Variables that need
to be controlled
1. Organismic variables (such as anxiety,
intelligence, personality, etc.),
2. Situational or environmental variables
operating at the time of conducting the
experiment (such as noise, temperature,
humidity)
3. Sequential variables- The sequence related
variables assume significance when the
participants in experiments are required to be
tested in several conditions. Exposure to
many conditions may result in experimental
fatigue.
Techniques to control Extraneous
Variables
 Elimination
Since the goal of an experiment is to minimize
extraneous variables, the best way to handle
this problem is to eliminate them from the
experimental setting.
Ex- Making the room soundproof etc.
 Holding the Behavior Constant

Efforts are made to hold them constant so that

their effect remains the same throughout the
experiment.
Ex- keeping 1 Gender constant
 Matching
In this procedure the relevant variables in the
two groups are equated or are held constant by
taking matched pairs across conditions of the
experiment.
Ex- Socio Economic Status

 Counter -balancing technique

It is used to minimize the sequence effect.
Suppose there are two tasks to be given in an
experiment. Rather than giving the two tasks in
the same sequence the experimenter may
interchange the order of the tasks. It becomes
unpredictable.
 Random assignment
of participants to different groups eliminates
any potential systematic differences between
groups. Everybody gets a chance and there will
not be any bias in random assigning of the
task.
Ex- Gender, lottery system
 Types of Experiments

Field Quasi
Experiments Experiments
 If a researcher wants to conduct studies which
are not possible in laboratory settings, s/he may
go to the field or the natural setting where the
particular phenomenon actually exists. In other
words, s/he may conduct a field experiment.
 Ex- School, Football (natural setting)

 A researcher adopts the method of quasi (the

Latin word meaning “as if ”) experimentation

were the independent variable is selected rather
than varied or manipulated by the experimenter.
 Ex-Earthquake
Aquasi experiment attempts to
manipulate an independent variable in
a natural setting using naturally
occurring groups to form
experimental and control groups.
 Experimental Method
Advantages Disadvantages

1. Convincing evidence of cause 1. Artificial as a method

and effect relationship

2. Well designed scientific method 2. Only stimulate situations

existing in the outside world

3. Accurate and highly precise 3. Low external validity and

results cannot be applied to every setting

4. Highly Controlled 4. Not feasible for studying all the

problems
3) Correlational Research
 Experimental method studies the causal
relationship between variables whereas
 Correlational method studies the
casual relationship.
 Variables happen to occur together and can
be predicted
 Researcher simply finds out the relationship

between the two variables to determine

whether they are associated or not.
 Ex: Amount of study time and academic

achievement, smoking and lungs problem

 The strength and direction of the
relationship between the two variables is
represented by a number, known as
Correlation Coefficient. Its value can
range from +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0. (Tool
of data analysis)
 The degree of a perfect correlation is 1 and

0.50 is the average correlation.

3 types of Coefficient
Correlation:
1) Positive Correlation
Indicates that as the value of one variable (X)
increases, the value of the other variable (Y) will
also increase. Similarly when variable X
decreases, a decrease in Y too takes place.
2) Negative Correlation
States that as the value of one variable (X)
increases, the value of the other (Y) decreases.
(Ranging between 0 and -1.0)
3) Zero Correlation
Indicates no correlation may exist between the
two variables.
4) Survey Research
 Surveyresearch is used to study
opinions, attitudes and social facts.

 Used to find out facts such as the

literacy rate at a particular time,
religious affiliations, income level of a
particular group of people, a new
product survey, Government exit poll
survey and so on.
Types of Surveys

1. Personal Interviews
2. Questionnaires
3. Telephonic surveys
4. Controlled observations
Personal Interviews
 The interview method is one of the most
frequently used methods for obtaining
information from people.
 An interview is a purposeful activity conducted
to derive factual information, opinions and
attitudes, and reasons for particular behavior,
etc. from the respondents.
 It is generally conducted face-to-face but
sometimes it can also take place over the
phone.
2 types of interviews
1) Structured or Standardised Interviews
 A structured interview is one where the

questions in the schedule are written clearly

in a particular sequence.
 The interviewer has little or no liberty to

make changes in the wordings of the

questions or the order in which they are to be
asked.
 The responses to these questions are also, in

some cases, specified in advance. These are

called close-ended questions.
2) Unstructured or Non-Standardised
 In an unstructured interview the interviewer

has the flexibility to take decisions about the

questions to be asked, the wording of the
questions, and the sequence in which
questions are to be asked.
 Since responses are not specified in such type

of interviews, the respondent can answer the

questions in the way s/he chooses to.
 Such questions are called open-ended

questions.
Types of Participants in an Interview
Method:

1. Individual to Individual
2. Individual to Group (Focus
Group Discussion)
3. Group to Individuals
4. Group to Group
 Questionnaire Survey
 The questionnaire is the most common, simple,
versatile, and low-cost self-report method of
collecting information.
 It consists of a predetermined set of questions.
 The respondent has to read the questions and
mark the answers on paper rather than
respond verbally to the interviewer.
 Two types of questions are used in the
questionnaire- open-ended and closed-
ended.
 Ex- Close ended (Rating scale, MCQ’s)
 Telephone Survey
 Surveys that are conducted through
telephone through calls or mobile phones’
SMS.
 The telephone survey helps in reducing

time.
 Since the respondents do not know the

interviewer, the technique is fraught with

uncooperativeness, reluctance, and
superficial answers by the respondents
 Survey Method
ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

1. Information is carried 1. Inaccurate information may

quickly and easily be provided by the sample

2. Quick to conduct 2. People sometimes offer

responses they think the
researcher wants to hear.

3. Highly accurate 3. Results are only useful

predictions when respondents are true
representatives of the sample
5) Psychological Testing
A psychological test is a
standardised and objective
instrument which is used to assess
an individual’s standing in relation to
others on some mental or behavioural
characteristics.
Features of psychological Tests
 Objectivity refers to the fact that if two or
more researchers administer a
psychological test on the same group of
people, both of them would come up with
more or less the same values for each
person in the group.
 Standardisation refers to the uniformity in
the conditions of administration of test
including the test instructions, procedure,
manual, scoring, time limit and so on.
Parts of Standardization
1) Reliability:
 Reliability of the test refers to the consistency of

scores obtained by an individual on the same test

on two different occasions.
i. Test-Retest
ii. Split-Half Reliability- It gives an indication
about the degree of internal consistency of the
test which is based on the assumption that
items of a test if they are from the same domain
should correlate with each other. If they are
from different domains, e.g., apples and
oranges, then they would not.
2) Validity:
 “Does the test measure what it claims to measure”?

Example, if you have constructed a test of

mathematics achievement, whether the test is
actually measuring mathematical achievement?
3) Norms:
 They are the scoring and results of a test.

 Norm is the normal or average performance of the

group. Norms helps us in comparing the

performance of an individual with others of the
same group.
 It also helps in interpreting individuals’ score

obtained on a test.
Types of Psychological Tests

On the Basis of Language

Verbal Performance
Non-Verbal Tests
 Types of Psychological Tests

On the basis of mode of

administration

Group
Individual (face to
(instructions given
face)
to entire group)
Types of Psychological Tests

On the basis of Difficulty Level

Speed Test (time Power Test (no

limit) time limit but has
difficulty levels)
Limitations
 Psychological tests must be selected
and used with great care.
 The test user or the decision maker

should not rely on any single test.

 Test data should be combined with

information about a person’s

background, interests, and past
performance.
6) Case Study
 Case study method gives emphasis on in-
depth study of a particular case. The case can
be an individual with distinguishing
characteristics, a small group of individuals
having some commonality among them or
any specific events
 A case study employs multiple methods for

collecting information, such as interview,

observation, and psychological tests from a
variety of respondents who in some way or
the other might be associated with the case
and can provide useful information.
 Case Study
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

1. Rich in information and unique 1. It cannot be generalized

cases

2. Provides detailed information 2. Difficult to maintain the chain of

and analysis data source

3. Valuable research specially for

Clinical Psychology

4. In depth studies and multiple

strategies
 Analysis of Data
1) Quantitative Method
 It emphasize objective measurements and the
statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of
data collected through polls, questionnaires, and
surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing
statistical data using computational techniques.
Ex: Correlation coefficient method
2) Qualitative Method
 It focuses on obtaining data through open-ended

and conversational communication.

This method is not only about “what” people
think but also “why” they think so. Ex: Narrative
analysis
Limitations of Psychological Enquiry

1) Lack of True Zero Point:

 Psychological measurements do not have a

true zero point. For example, no person in this

world has zero intelligence. All of us have
some degree of intelligence.
2) Relative Nature of Psychological Tools:
 The cultural differences of a tool wherein tests

need to be properly modified and adapted

keeping in view the characteristics of the
context/culture in which they are to be used.
Limitations of Psychological Enquiry

3) Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative

Data:
 Data from qualitative studies are largely

subjective since they involve interpretation

on the part of the researcher as well as the
person providing data.
 The interpretations may vary from one

individual to the other.

 Ethical Issues
 A researcher is expected to follow certain ethics (or
moral principles) while conducting the studies.
These principles are:
 Respect for persons’ privacy and choice to
participate in the study, beneficence or
protecting the participants in the study
from any harm, and justice or sharing the
benefits of research with all participants.
Ethical Principles:
1. Voluntary Participation
2. Informed Consent
3. Debriefing
4. Sharing the Results of the
Study
5. Confidentiality of Data Source