DATA REPRESENTATION

LESSON 01

NUMBERING SYSTEMS

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 TEXT BOOK

The Essentials of Computer Organization and

Architecture, 2d ed., by Linda Null and Julia
Lobur (Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett,
2006).

 Digital Design and Computer Architechure

by David Money Harris and Sarah l. Harris

Fundamentals of Computer Organization and

Architecture by Mostafa Abd-El-Barr and
Hesham El-Rewini COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
Change your mindset

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Overview
This section discusses several important
concepts including:
◦ The binary and hexadecimal numbering systems,
◦ Binary data organization (bits nibbles bytes words
and double words)
◦ Signed and unsigned numbering systems
◦ Arithmetic logical shift and rotate operations on
binary values
◦ Revision of Bit fields and packed data and the
ASCII character set.

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

NUMBERING SYSTEMS

Have you ever wondered why 1 is called

ONE and 2 is called TWO?

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

NUMBERING SYSTEMS

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Denary Numbers (Base 10)
 Normally we write numbers using ten digits
(0 to 9). This is called base 10.

 Base 10 numbers use a positional system

based on powers of 10 to indicate their value.
100 10 1
1 9 7

The number 197 is really 1 hundred + 9 tens + 7 ones.

The value of each position is determined by ever-higher
powers
of 10, read from left to right. COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
Binary Numbers
 However, any positive integer (whole
number) can be easily represented by a
sequence of 0's and 1's.

 Numbers in this form are said to be in base 2

and they are called binary numbers.

 Base 10 numbers use a positional system

based on powers of 10 to indicate their value.

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Binary Numbers
 The number 123 in base ten is really 1
hundred + 2 tens + 3 ones.
 The value of each position is determined by
ever-higher powers of 10, read from left to
right.
 Base 2 works the same way, just with
different powers.

 The number 101 in base 2 is really 1 four + 0

twos + 1 one (which equals 5 in base 10).
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
Some numbers to always remember

25 = 32
2–4 = 0.0625 20 = 1
26 = 64
2–3 = 0.125 21 = 2
27 = 128
2–2 = 0.25 22 = 4
28 = 256
2–1 = 0.5 23 = 8
29 = 512
20 = 1 24 = 16
210 = 1,024

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Some numbers to always remember

Decimal 4-Bit Binary Hexadecimal

0 0000 0
1 0001 1
2 0010 2
3 0011 3
4 0100 4
5 0101 5
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
10 1010 A
11 1011 B
12 1100 C
13 1101 D
14 1110 E
15 1111 F

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Numbering Systems
Most modern computer systems use a binary
or two's complement numbering system.

A Review of the Decimal System
We are all used to the decimal (base 10)
numbering system

 When you see a number like "123" we don't

think about the value 123; rather we generate
a mental image of how many items this value
represents. COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
Numbering Systems
A Review of the Decimal System
◦ In reality however the number 123 represents:

◦ 1x102 + 2 x 101 + 3x100

or
◦ 100 + 20 + 3

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

2.1 A Review of the Decimal System
Each digit appearing to the left of the decimal point
represents a value between zero and nine times an
increasing power of ten.

 Digits appearing to the right of the decimal point

represent a value between zero and nine times an
increasing negative power of ten.

For example the value 123.456 means:

◦ 1x102 + 2x101 + 3x100 + 4x10-1 + 5x10x-2 + 6x10-3

◦ or 100 + 20 + 3 + 0.4 + 0.05 + 0.006

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
The Binary Numbering System
The binary numbering system works just like
the decimal numbering system with two
exceptions:
◦ Binary only allows the digits 0 and 1 (rather than
0-9) and

◦ Binary uses powers of two rather than powers of

ten.

 Therefore it is very easy to convert a binary

number to decimal.
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
The Binary Numbering System
For each "1" in the binary string add in 2 n
where "n" is the zero-based position of the
binary digit.
 For example the binary value 11001010
represents:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

= 1x27 + 1x26 + 0x25 + 0x24 + 1x23 + 0x22 + 1x21 + 0x20

= 128 + 64 + 8 + 2 = 202 (base 10)
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 “Pure” Binary Numbers
 Pure binary represents numbers using just two digits (‘0’ and
‘1’) and columns, which increase by a factor of two.

 This is in contrast to our normal number system (denary),

which uses ten digits (0-9) and columns, and which increase
by a factor of ten.

 In denary the number one hundred and ninety seven is

represented as:
100 10 1
1 9 7
 In binary, it is represented as:

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
Converting from Binary to Denary

A binary number, such as 1001 0101, can be converted

into its denary equivalent as follows:

 1).Write the binary number with the appropriate column

headings:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

 2. Add the column headings under which there is a binary ‘1’:

= 128 + 16 + 4 + 1
= 149 COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
Converting from Binary to Denary
 A denary number, such as 107, can be converted into binary as follows:

 1. Write down the binary column headings:

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
 2. Then, starting from the left, ‘take out’ the values in the column headings, if possible:
128 cannot be taken out of 107 so that column contains a ‘0’:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0
 64 can be taken out of 107 so that column contains a ‘1’; this leaves 107 – 64 = 43:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1
 32 can be taken out of 43 so that column contains a ‘1’; this leaves 43 – 32 = 11:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 1
 3. keep repeating the above process until the whole number has been converted to pure
binary:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
Converting Decimal to Binary Numbers
To convert decimal (denary) to binary

Example

Convert the decimal value 1359 to Binary:

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Converting from denary to binary
 A denary number, such as 1359, can be converted into binary as follows:
 1). Write down the binary column headings:
 2048 1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

 2). Then, starting from the left, ‘take out’ the values in the column headings, if possible:
 2048 cannot be taken out of 1359 so that column contains a ‘0’:
 2048 1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
 0
 3.) 1024 can be taken out of 1359 so that column contains a ‘1’;
this leaves 1359 – 1024 = 329:
 2048 1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
 0 1
 4). 256 can be taken out of 329 so that column contains a ‘1’; this leaves 329 – 256 = 73:
 2048 1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 0 1
 5). keep repeating the above process until the whole number has been converted to pure
binary:
 2048 1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
 0 1 0 1 0 1 0COM2110- Computer
1 Architecture
1 11 1
Alternative approach -
Conversion of the decimal value 1359 to
base two:

 First convert to base 16

 Then convert each Base 16 number to four

binary digits

 This method will be treated later

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Alternative approach -
Conversion of the decimal value 1359 to
base two:

 First convert to base 8

 Then convert each Base 8 number to three

binary digits

 This method will also be treated later

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Binary Formats
 It is normal to ignore any leading zeros.

 For example 101 (binary) represents the number

five (5).

We will zero extend all binary numbers to some

multiple of four or eight bits.

 Therefore following this convention we'd represent

the number five as:
0101 (binary) or 00000101 (binary).
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
Binary Formats
 For readability, we will separate each group
of four binary bits with a space.

 For example the binary value

1010111110110010 will be written as:

1010 1111 1011 0010.

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Binary Formats
For convenience we'll assign a numeric value
to each bit position as follows:

◦ 1) The rightmost bit in a binary number is bit

position zero.

◦ 2) Each bit to the left is given the next successive

bit number.

◦ An eight-bit binary value uses bits zero through

seven like so: X7 X6 X5 X4 X3 X2 X1 X0

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Binary Formats
 A 16-bit binary value uses bit positions zero
through fifteen like so:
X15 X14 X13 X12 X11 X10 X9 X8 X7 X6 X5 X4 X3 X2 X1 X0

◦ Bit zero is usually referred to as the low order

( L.O.) bit.

◦ The left-most bit is typically called the high order (

H.O.) bit.

◦ While the intermediate bits are referred to by their

respective bit numbers. COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
The Hexadecimal Numbering System
Problem with the binary system is verbosity.

◦ To represent the value 202 (decimal) requires eight binary

digits.

◦ The decimal version requires only three decimal digits and

thus represents numbers much more compactly than does
the binary numbering system.

◦ When dealing with large values binary numbers which

could be unwieldy hence it is better to use Hexadecimal
(Hex).

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

The Hexadecimal Numbering System

Theadvantages of using Hexadecimal

numbers are:
◦ They're very compact and
◦ It's simple to convert them to binary and vice
versa.
For example the number 1234 (hexadecimal) is
equal to:
◦ 1 x 163 + 2 x 162 + 3 x 161 + 4x160
or
◦ 4096 + 512 + 48 + 4 = 4660 (decimal).
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
The Hexadecimal Numbering System
 Each hexadecimal digit can represent one of sixteen
values between 0 and 15.

 The letters A through F are used to represent the

numbers from 10 to 15.

 The following are all examples of valid

hexadecimal numbers:
1234 DEAD BEEF 0AFB FEED DEAF

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

The Hexadecimal Numbering System
 To differentiate hexadecimal numbers from decimal
numbers we’ll adopt the following conventions:

◦ All numeric values (regardless of their radix) begin

with a decimal digit.

◦ All hexadecimal values end with the letter "h" e.g.

123A4h.

◦ All binary values end with the letter "b".

◦ Decimal numbers may have a "t" or "d" suffix.

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
The Hexadecimal Numbering System

Examplesof valid hexadecimal numbers:

1234h 0DEADh 0BEEFh 0AFBh 0FEEDh
0DEAFh

Examples of valid binary numbers:

◦ a) 1011b b) 1001b c) 1001 1100b

Examples of valid decimal numbers:

◦ a) 1011t b) 121d c) 123
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
The Hexadecimal Numbering System

Binary/Hex Conversion
Binary Hexadecimal
0000 0
0001 1
0010 2
0011 3
0100 4
0101 5
0110 6
0111 7
1000 8
1001 9
1010 A
1011 B
1100 C
1101 D
1110 E
1111 F

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Conversion from Hexadecimal to Binary
 To convert a hexadecimal number into a
binary number simply substitute the
corresponding four bits for each hexadecimal
digit in the number.

◦ For example to convert 0ABCDh into a binary

value simply convert each hexadecimal digit
according to the table above:

◦ 0 A B C D Hexadecimal
◦ 0000 1010 1011 1100 1101 Binary
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
Converting Binary to Hexadecimal Numbers

 Convert a binary number into hexadecimal as

follows:

◦ First step is to pad the binary number with zeros to obtain a

multiple of four bits in the number.

◦ Step 2 is to separate the binary value into groups of four

bits.

◦ Step 3 is to convert each group of four bits into the

Hexadecimal value

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Converting Binary to Hexadecimal Numbers

Example:
Convert 1011001010 (base 2) to
Hexadecimal:

◦ Solution:
◦ Step 1: Add two bits to the left of the binary
number 1011001010 so that it contains 12 bits.

◦ The binary number becomes: 001011001010.

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

The Hexadecimal Numbering System

Step 2:
◦ Separate the binary value into groups of four bits
giving: 0010 1100 1010.

 Step 3:
◦ Convert each group to the appropriate hexadecimal
digits which gives: 2CA.

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 Arithmetic Operations
on
Binary and Hexadecimal Numbers

NEXT

LESSON 2B

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 BINARY TO DECIMAL CONVERSION

EXAMPLE:
Convert 1000 110112 to Decimal number

The Multiply and Add Algorithm:

◦ 1. Start with the Msb, multiply by 2 and add the
next bit
◦ 2. Multiply the result obtained by 2 and add the
next bit
◦ 3. Continue process until you’ve added the Lsb and
stop

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

BINARY TO DECIMAL CONVERSION

EXAMPLE:

 Convert 1000 110112 to Decimal number

Solution:
 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 283
ADD
x2

2 4 8 16 34 70 140 282

x2
ADD
Therefore 1000110112 = 28310
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
BINARY TO DECIMAL CONVERSION

EXAMPLE:
Convert the binary fraction 0.11010001 2 to
Decimal number

The Divide and Add Algorithm:

◦ 1. Start with the rightmost bit, divide by 2 and add
the next bit to the left
◦ 2. Divide the result obtained by 2 and add the next
bit to the left
◦ 3. Continue process until you’ve added the bit
immediately after decimal point(.) and stop
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
BINARY TO DECIMAL CONVERSION
EXAMPLE:
Convert binary fraction 0.11010001 2 to
Decimal number
Solution:
 0. 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
ADD /2

0.81640625 0.6328125 0.265625 0.53125 0.0625 0.125 0.25 0.50

ADD /2
Therefore 0.110100012 = 0.8164062510
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
DECIMAL TO BINARY CONVERSION
The Divide and Remainder Algorithm for
the Integer part:
◦ 1. Divide number by 2 and record remainder

◦ 2. Divide the resultant quotient by 2 and record

remainder

◦ 3. Continue until final remainder of 0 is obtained

◦ 4. The first remainder written is the lsb and the one

written last is the Msb
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
DECIMAL TO BINARY CONVERSION
EXAMPLE:
 Convert 21710 to binary
Solution:
 2 217
2 108 R 1
2 54 R 0
2 55 R 0
2 56 R 1
2 57R 1
2 58R 0
2 59R 1
2 0 R 1
Therefore, 21710 = 110110012
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
DECIMAL TO BINARY CONVERSION
Multiply and Carry Algorithm for the
decimal part:
◦ 1. Multiply the Decimal part by 2 and record the
carry over (Overflow)
◦ 2. Multiply the resultant number by 2 and record
Carry over (Overflow)
◦ 3. Continue until the desired level of decimal
places is reached
◦ 4. The first Carry Over recorded is the Msb ( ie the
bit immediately to the right of the decimal point)

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

DECIMAL TO BINARY CONVERSION
EXAMPLE:
 Convert 0.7812510 to binary
Solution:
Carry Overs
0.78125
0.78125 x 2 = 1.5625 1
0.5625 x 2 = 1.135 1
0.135 x 2 = 0.27 0
0.27 x2 = 0.54 0
0.54 x2 = 1.08 1
0.08 x2 = 0.16 0
0.16 x 2 = 0.32 0

Thus 0.7812510 = (0.1100100.....)

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
2
DECIMAL TO BINARY CONVERSION
EXAMPLE:
 Convert 0.8510 to binary
Solution:
Carry Overs
0.85
0.85 x 2 = 1.70 1
0.7 x 2 = 1.4 1
0.4 x 2 = 0.8 0
0.8 x 2 = 1.6 1
0.6 x 2 = 1.2 1
0.2 x 2 = 0.4 0
0.4 x 2 = 0.8 0

Thus 0.8510 = (0.1101100..)COM211

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- Computer Architecture 1
CONVERSION OF MIXED
NUMBERS
EXAMPLE 1:
 Convert 10011.1012 to a Decimal number
Solution:
1 0 0 1 1 . 1 0 1
19

0.625 0.25 0.5

2 4 8 18

Thus 10011.1012 = 19.625COM211

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- Computer Architecture 1
CONVERSION OF MIXED
NUMBERS
EXAMPLE 2:
 Convert 33.310 to binary
Solution:
Carry Overs
2 33 . 3
2 16 R 1 0.3 x2 = 0 .6 0
2 8 R0 0.6 x2 = 1 .2 1
2 4 R0 0.2 x2 = 0 .4 0
2 2 R0 0.4 x2 = 0 .8 0
2 1 R 0 0.8 x2 = 1 .6 1
2 0 R1 0.6 x2 = 1 .2 1
0.2 x2 = 0 .4 0

Thus 33.310 = (10001.0100110..)

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
2
CONVERSION OF MIXED
NUMBERS
EXAMPLE 2:
 Convert 33.310 to binary
Solution:
Carry Overs
2 33 . 3
2 16 R 1 .3 x2
2 8 R0 0 .6 x2
2 4 R0 1 .2 x2
2 2 R0 0 .4 x2
2 1 R 0 0 .8 x2
2 0 R1 1 .6 x2
1 .2 x2

Thus 33.310 = (10001.0100110..)

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
2
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF BINARY
NUMBERS
EXAMPLE:
Add the binary numbers A= 11101100 and
B = 1100110
Solution:
 Column 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 (Decimal Addition)
A 11101100 (236)
B 1100110 (102)
______________
101010010 (338)

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

SUBTRACTION OF BINARY NUMBERS
Rules:
1. 1–1=0
2. 0–0=0
3. 1–0=1
4. 0 – 1 = 1 with a borrow out

In order to borrow, change the next 1 in the minuend to a 0

and change all intervening 0s to 1s

Note:


COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 SUBTRACTION OF BINARY NUMBERS
Example:
Subtract 101101001 from 100011010011
Column 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 (Decimal Subtraction)
1 0 0 011010011 (2259)
101101001 - (361)
_____________________
1 1 101101010 (1898)

Note:

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

SUBTRACTION OF BINARY NUMBERS

LESSON 2C
Subtractions
[Lesson 2 continues]

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 COMPLEMENTS OF NUMBERS
r's Complement:

 For a Number N having n digits in base "r":

 r's Complement = rn – N

 Converts (r-1)'s complement to r's complement by

adding 1.

 10's complement in Decimal Number System,

 2's complement in Binary Number System.

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 COMPLEMENTS OF NUMBERS

r's Complement:

Example 1:
10's complement of 830594 = 169406

 Example 2:
2's complement of 10110010110101 is
01001101001011

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 Substraction of Unsigned Numbers:

 M - N (in base r)

 M is minuend, N is subtrahend

To perform subtraction:

 Add M to r's complement of N.

M – N = M + (rn - N) = M - N + rn

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November 22, 2 COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 Substraction of Unsigned Numbers:

 If M >= N, then the sum will produce an end carry

rn which is discarded.

 If M < N, then the sum does not produce an end

carry. Then, Answer is negative and equal to rn - (N
- M), which is r's complement of (N - M).

 To obtain the answer in a familiar form, take r's

complement of the sum and place a negative sign
in front.

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November 22, 2 COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 Binary Substraction using 2's complement:
 Example:
110100010101 – 10110001

 First, increase length of subtrahend to the length

of minuend: 000010110001

 2's complement of 000010110001

= 111101001111

 110100010101
+ 111101001111
= 1 110001100100 Discard carry:
Ans = 110001100100
November 22, 2 Page 59
023 COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 DATA REPRESENTATION
SIGNED NUMBERS

 When an integer number is positive, the sign is

represented by 0 and the magnitude by a positive
binary number.

 When the number is negative, the sign is

represented by 1 but the number may be
represented in one of three possible ways:

 Signed-magnitude representation,
 Signed-1's complement representation,
 Signed-2's complement representation,
November 22, 2 Page 60
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
023
 SIGNED NUMBERS
The left-most bit is always used as the sign bit in
signed numbers.
 If a signed number is stored in 16-bit
register, the register holds 15 significant bits,
plus a sign bit.
 A 16-bit register can hold signed numbers
between the ranges -215 and +(215 - 1)

 Example: 8-bit signed numbers:

0 = 00000000, 1 = 00000001,
127 = 01111111, -1 = 11111111,
-2 = 11111110, -128 = 10000000.
November 22, 2 Page 61
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023
 Signed Integers
Three representation schemes are available for
signed integers:

◦ Sign-Magnitude representation
◦ 1's Complement representation
◦ 2's Complement representation

In the three schemes, the most-significant bit (msb)

is called the sign bit.
◦ with 0 for positive integers and 1 for negative integers.

◦ The magnitude of the integer, however, is interpreted

differently in different schemes. COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 Sign-magnitude representation

 In sign-magnitude representation:

The most-significant bit (msb) is the sign bit,

with value of 0 representing positive integer
and 1 representing negative integer.

Theremaining (n-1) bits represents the

magnitude (absolute value) of the integer.

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 Sign-magnitude representation

Example 1: Suppose that n=8 and the binary

representation is 0 100 0001B.
◦ Sign bit is 0 ⇒ positive
◦ Absolute value is 100 0001B = 65 (decimal)
◦ Hence, the integer is +65 (decimal)

Example 2: Suppose that n=8 and the binary

representation is 1 000 0001B.
◦ Sign bit is 1 ⇒ negative
◦ Absolute value is 000 0001B = 1 (decimal)
◦ Hence, the integer is -1 (decimal)
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 Sign-magnitude representation

Example 3: Suppose that n=8 and the binary

representation is 0 000 0000B.
◦ Sign bit is 0 ⇒ positive
◦ Absolute value is 000 0000B = 0 (decimal)
◦ Hence, the integer is +0 (decimal)

Example 4: Suppose that n=8 and the binary

representation is 1 000 0000B.
◦ Sign bit is 1 ⇒ negative
◦ Absolute value is 000 0000B = 0 (decimal)
◦ Hence, the integer is -0 (decimal)
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 Sign-magnitude representation

The drawbacks of sign-magnitude

representation are:

◦ There are two representations for the number zero

(0000 0000B and 1000 0000B), which could lead
to inefficiency and confusion.

◦ Positive and negative integers need to be processed

separately.

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 1’s Complement representation
n-bit
Sign Integers in 1's Complement
Representation
◦ In 1's complement representation:

◦ Again, msb is the sign bit, with value of 0 for positive

integers and 1 for negative integers.

◦ Remaining n-1 bits represents the magnitude as follows:

◦ for negative integers, the absolute value of the integer is

equal to "the magnitude of the complement (inverse) of the
(n-1)-bit binary pattern" (called 1's complement).

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 1’s Complement representation
Example 1: Suppose that n=8 and the binary
representation 0 100 0001B.
◦ Sign bit is 0 ⇒ positive
◦ Absolute value is 100 0001B = 65 (decimal)
◦ Hence, the integer is +65 (decimal)

Example 2: Suppose that n=8 and the binary

representation 1 000 0001B.
◦ Sign bit is 1 ⇒ negative
◦ Absolute value is the 1’s complement of 000 0001B,
i.e., 111 1110B = 126 (decimal)
◦ Hence, the integer is -126 (decimal)
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 1’s Complement representation
Example 3: Suppose that n=8 and the binary
representation 0 000 0000B.
◦ Sign bit is 0 ⇒ positive
◦ Absolute value is 000 0000B = 0 (Decimal)
◦ Hence, the integer is +0 (Decimal)

Example 4: Suppose that n=8 and the binary

representation 1 111 1111B.
◦ Sign bit is 1 ⇒ negative
◦ Absolute value is the complement of 111 1111B,
◦ i.e., 000 0000B = 0 (Decimal)
◦ Hence, the integer is -0 (Decimal)
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 1’s Complement representation

Again, the drawbacks are:

Thereare two representations:

(0000 0000B and 1111 1111B) for zero.

The positive integers and negative integers

need to be processed separately.

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 2’s Complement representation

n-bitSign Integers in 2's Complement

Representation
◦ In 2's complement representation:

◦ The msb is the sign bit, with value of 0 for positive integers
and 1 for negative integers.

◦ The remaining n-1 bits represents the magnitude of the

integer, except that:

◦ For negative integers, the absolute value of the integer is

equal to "the magnitude of the 2’s complement of the (n-1)
bit binary pattern " (called 2's complement).
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 2’s Complement representation

Example 1: Suppose that n=8 and the binary

representation 0 100 0001B.
◦ Sign bit is 0 ⇒ positive
◦ Absolute value is 100 0001B = 65(decimal)
◦ Hence, the integer is +65 (decimal)

Example 2: Suppose that n=8 and the binary

representation 1 000 0001B.
◦ Sign bit is 1 ⇒ negative
◦ Absolute value is the complement of 000 0001B plus 1,
i.e., 111 1110B + 1B = 127 (decimal)
◦ Hence, the integer is -127 (decimal)
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 2’s Complement representation

Example 3: Suppose that n=8 and the binary

representation 0 000 0000B.
◦ Sign bit is 0 ⇒ positive
◦ Absolute value is 000 0000B = 0 (decimal)
◦ Hence, the integer is +0 (decimal)

Example 4: Suppose that n=8 and the binary

representation 1 111 1111B.
◦ Sign bit is 1 ⇒ negative
◦ Absolute value is the complement of 111 1111B plus 1,
i.e., 000 0000B + 1B = 1 (decimal)
◦ Hence, the integer is -1 (decimal)
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 2’s Complement representation

Computers use 2's Complement Representation

for Signed Integers because:

There is only one representation for the number zero

in 2's complement, instead of two representations in
sign-magnitude and 1's complement.

Positive and negative integers can be treated together

in addition and subtraction. Subtraction can be
carried out using the "addition logic".

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 2’s Complement Addition

Example 1:
Addition of Two Positive Integers:
Suppose that n = 8 bits,
◦ 65d + 5d = 70 (decimal)

◦ 65d → 0100 0001B

+
◦ 5d → 0000 0101B
◦ (0) 0100 0110B → 70 (decimal) (OK)


COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 2’s Complement Addition
Example 2: Subtraction is treated as Addition of a
Positive and a Negative Integers:

Suppose that n = 8 bits,

 65d – 5d = 65d + (-5d) = 60 (decimal)

◦ 65D → 0100 0001B

+
◦ -5D → 1111 1011B
(1) 0011 1100B → 60decimal (discard carry - OK)

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 2’s Complement Addition

Example 3: Addition of two Negative

Integers: Suppose that n = 8,

◦ -65d – 5d = (-65d) + (-5d) = -70d

◦ -65d → 1011 1111B

+
◦ -5d → 1111 1011B
(1) 1011 1010B → -70 (decimal)
◦ (discard carry - OK)
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 2’s Complement Overflow
 When working with 8-bits unsigned numbers Carry
bit from the 8 bits indicate that the number is too big.

 With signed numbers, the Carry bit is simply

ignored.

Hence another rule is needed to detect when result is

out of range

The rule for detecting 2’s complement overflow is

“When Carry into MSB does not equal the Carry
Out from MSB
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 2’s Complement Overflow
 Examples:

◦ 1] 15 + (-15)
◦ 15 = 0000 1111
◦ +15 = 0000 1111
◦ 30 = 0001 1110 OK

◦ 2] 127 + 1
◦ 127 = 0111 1111
◦ + 1= 0000 0001
◦ - 128 = (0) 1000 0000 (0) 1 Overflow

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 2’s Complement Overflow
 Examples:

◦ 3] -15 + (-15)
◦ -15 = 1111 0001
◦ + -15 = 1111 0001
◦ - 30 = (1) 1110 0010 (1) 1 OK

◦ 4] -127 + (- 2)
◦ -127 = 1000 0001
◦ + -2 = 1111 1110
◦ - 129 = (1) 0111 1111 (1) 0 Overflow

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 2’s Complement representation
Because of the fixed precision (i.e., fixed number of
bits), an n-bit 2's complement signed integer has a
certain range.

Forexample, for n= 4 bits, the range of 2's

complement signed integers is - 8 to +7.

Notice the asymmetry

During addition (and subtraction), it is important to

check whether the result exceeds this range, in other
words, whether overflow or underflow has occurred.
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
2’s Complement representation

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

2’s Complement representation

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 Range of n-bit numbers

For unsigned binary numbers, the range is:

From 0 to (2n - 1).

 Example:

 With 4 bits, the range is From 0 to (24 – 1)

From 0 to 15

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 Range of n-bit numbers

For Sign + Magnitude binary numbers, the range is:

From – (2n-1 + 1) to (2n-1 - 1).

 Example:

 With 4 bits, the range is from –(23 +1) to (23 – 1)

From -7 to 7

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 Range of n-bit numbers

For 2’s Complement binary numbers, the range is:

From – (2n-1 ) to (2n-1 - 1).

 Example:
 With 4 bits, the range is from –(23 ) to (23 – 1)

From -8 to 7

By implication, If n = 8 bits, the range of 2's

complement signed integers is -128 to +127.

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 2’s Complement
The One byte 2’s Complement representation
for signed integers uses the following column
headings

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 2’s Complement
 Examples
 +18 -128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

 -18
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

2’s Complement

 Note:
 The range of integers that can be
represented with one byte is from -128 to
+127

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = -128
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = +127

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 2’s Complement
 An easy trick for converting negative decimal
numbers to 2’s Complement is as follows:

 Step 1: Convert the number to the positive unsigned

binary

Step 2 : Starting from the right hand side, copy each

bit, up to and including the first “1”:

Step3: Reverse all the other bits:

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 2’s Complement
 Example:
Convert (-52) denary into the 2’s Complement
binary representation:
 Step 1: Convert the number to the positive unsigned
binary -128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
Step 2 : Starting from the right hand side, copy each
bit, up to and including the first “1”:
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2
01 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0
Step3: Reverse all the other bits:
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 = -52
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
Converting Negative binary numbers
into Denary
 Example 1:
Convert the “signed” 2’s Complement binary
number 11010101 to base 10:
Step 1: -128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Step 2: = -128 + 64 + 16 + 4 + 1
= -43
Example 2: Convert the sign + magnitude number
11001100 to Denary:
- 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

= - (64 + 8 + 4) = -76 COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Signed and Unsigned Numbers
The following examples provide some positive and
negative 16-bit signed 2’s complement values:

◦ 7FFFh: +32767 (the largest 16-bit positive number).

◦ 8000h: -32768 (the smallest 16-bit negative number.

◦ 4000h: = +16384.

To convert the numbers above to their negative

counterpart (i.e. to negate them) do the following:

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 Signed and Unsigned Numbers
7FFFh = 0111 1111 1111 1111
= +32767 (the largest 16-bit positive number).

2’sComplement = 1000 0000 0000 0000

= 8000h
= -32768 (the smallest 16-bit negative
number.

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Signed and Unsigned Numbers
To convert the numbers above to their
negative counterpart (i.e. to negate them) do
the following:
◦ 7Fh: 0111 1111
( = + 127t)

Perform 2’s Complement:

1000 0001 (81h or - 127t)

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 Signed and Unsigned Numbers
80h: 1000 0000 = -127t
◦ 2’s complement of 80h gives
1000 0000 ( = 80h or -127t)
Wait what's going on here? -(- 127) is

- 127? Of course not.

The issue is that the value + 128 cannot be

represented with a 8-bits signed number so we
cannot negate the smallest negative value.

40h: 0100 0000 = + 64t

2’s complement of 40h gives

1100 0000 (0C0h = - COM211

64t)- Computer Architecture 1
Signed and Unsigned Numbers
 WORKED EXAMPLES

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Signed and Unsigned Numbers
For example suppose you were to perform the
addition 5+(-5).

The result is zero.

Consider what happens when we add these

two values in the two's complement system:
◦ 00000101
11111011
◦ 1) 00000000
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
Signed and Unsigned Numbers
We end up with a carry into the ninth bit and all
other bits are zero.

 As it turns out if we ignore the carry out of the H.O.

bit adding two signed values always produces the
correct result when using the two's complement
numbering system.

This means we can use the same hardware for signed

and unsigned addition and subtraction.

Thiswouldn't be the case with some other

numbering systems. COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 Sign and Zero Extensions


NEXT

Sign and Zero Extensions

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 Sign and Zero Extension
Since two's complement format integers have a fixed
length a small problem develops.

What happens if you need to convert an eight bit

two's complement value to 16 bits?

This problem and its converse (converting a 16 bit

value to eight bits) can be accomplished via sign
extension and contraction operations.

Zero extension lets you convert small unsigned

values to larger unsigned values.
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 Sign and Zero Extension
Zero extension lets you convert small
unsigned values to larger unsigned values.

Consider the value "-64".

Theeight bit two's complement value for this

number is 0C0h.

 The 16-bit equivalent of this number is

0FFC0h.
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 Sign and Zero Extension
Now consider the value "+64".
 The eight and 16 bit versions of this value are 40h
and 0040h.

 The difference between the eight and 16 bit numbers

can be described by the rule:

"If
the number is negative the H.O. byte of the 16 bit
number contains 0FFh;

 if the number is positive the H.O. byte of the 16 bit

quantity is zero." COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 Sign and Zero Extension
To sign extend a value from some number of bits to a
greater number of bits is easy just copy the sign bit
into all the additional bits in the new format.

For example to sign extend an eight bit number to a

16 bit number simply copy bit seven of the eight bit
number into bits 8..15 of the 16 bit number.

To sign extend a 16 bit number to a double word

simply copy bit 15 into bits 16..31 of the double
word.

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 Sign and Zero Extension
 Sign extension is required when manipulating
signed values of varying lengths.

 Often you'll need to add a byte quantity to a word

quantity.

You must sign extend the byte quantity to a word

before the operation takes place.

Other operations (multiplication and division in

particular) may require a sign extension to 32-bits.
 You must not sign extend unsigned values
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 Sign and Zero Extension
 Examples of sign extension:


Eight Bits Sixteen Bits Thirty-two Bits

1 80h FF80h FFFF FF80h

2 28h 0028h 0000 0028h

3 9Ah FF9Ah FFFF FF9Ah

4 7Fh 007Fh 0000 007Fh

5 --- 1020h 0000 1020h

6 --- 8088h FFFF 8088h

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 Sign and Zero Extension
To extend an unsigned byte you must zero
extend the value.

◦ Zero extension is very easy - just store a zero into

the H.O. byte(s) of the smaller operand.

◦ For example to zero extend the value 82h to 16-

bits you simply add a zero to the H.O. byte
yielding 0082h.

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 Sign and Zero Extension
 Eight Bits Sixteen Bits Thirty-two Bits

 80h 0080h 00000080h
 28h 0028h 00000028h
 9Ah 009Ah 0000009Ah
 7Fh 007Fh 0000007Fh
 --- 1020h 00001020h
 --- 8088h 00008088h

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 Sign Contraction
Sign contraction converting a value with some
number of bits to the identical value with a fewer
number of bits is a little more troublesome.

 Sign extension never fails.

Given an m-bit signed value you can always convert

it to an n-bit number (where n > m) using sign
extension.

Unfortunately given an n-bit number you cannot

always convert it to an m-bit number if m < n.
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 Sign and Zero Extension
 Unfortunately given an n-bit number you cannot always
convert it to an m-bit number if m < n.

 For example consider the value - 448.

 As a 16-bit hexadecimal number its representation is

0FE40h.

 Unfortunately the magnitude of this number is too great to

fit into an eight bit value so you cannot sign contract it to
eight bits.

 This is an example of an overflow condition that occurs upon

conversion.
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 Sign and Zero Extension
To properly sign contract one value to another you
must look at the H.O. byte(s) that you want to
discard.

 The H.O. bytes you wish to remove must all

contain either zero or 0FFh.

Ifyou encounter any other values you cannot

contract it without overflow.

Finally the H.O. bit of your resulting value must

match every bit you've removed from the number.
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 Sign and Zero Extension
Examples (16 bits to eight bits):

FF80h can be sign contracted to 80h

0040h can be sign contracted to 40h

FE40h cannot be sign contracted to 8 bits.

0100h cannot be sign contracted to 8 bits.

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
 QUICK REVISION


CONTINUE WITH SLIDE ON FLOATI
NG POINTS

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

ASSIGNMENT
1. Find the representation of -2 as a 4 – bit
two’s complement number
 2. Find the decimal value of the two’s
complement number 10012
 3. Compute using two’s complement:
 a) -2 + 1
 b) -7 + 7
 c) 5 – 3
 d) 3 – 5
 e) 4 + 5 COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
ASSIGNMENT
 4. Assuming a single byte is used, convert
the following numbers into two’s complement
binary:
a) -5
b) -10
c) - 20

 5. What is the denary value od 10101011 if

the binary code represent:
a) a two’s complement number
b) a Sign and Magnitude number
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
ASSIGNMENT 6 : Complete the following table of
Negative Binary Numbers

Decimal Binary Signed I’s Complement 2’s Excess
Magnitude Complement 127

1 00000001 10000001 11111110 11111111 01111110

3 00000010
7 00000111
20
30
50
70 01000110 00111001
120
127 01111111 11111111 10000000 10000001 00000000
128 None None Existent None Existent 10000000 None
Existent Existent

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

SELF PRACTICE EXERCISE
 Exercise (Integer Representation)
1). What are the ranges of 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit and
64-bit integer, in "unsigned" and "signed"
representation?
2). Give the value of 88, 0, 1, 127, and 255 in 8-bit
unsigned representation.
3). Give the value of +88, -88 , -1, 0, +1, -128, and
+127 in 8-bit 2's complement signed representation.
4). Give the value of +88, -88 , -1, 0, +1, -127, and
+127 in 8-bit sign-magnitude representation.
5). Give the value of +88, -88 , -1, 0, +1, -127 and
+127 in 8-bit 1's complement representation.
COM211 - Computer Architecture 1
Answers to self practice exercise

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Answers to self practice exercise
2). Using Unsigned number representation
◦ 88 (0101 1000),

◦ 0 (0000 0000),

◦ 1 (0000 0001),

◦ 127 (0111 1111),

◦ 255 (1111 1111).

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Answers to self practice exercise
 3). Using 2’s Complement
◦ +88 (0101 1000),

◦ -88 (1010 1000),

◦ -1 (1111 1111),

◦ 0 (0000 0000),

◦ +1 (0000 0001),
◦
◦ -128 (1000 0000),

◦ +127 (0111 1111). COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Answers to self practice exercise
4.) Using Sign plus magnitude
◦ +88 (0101 1000),

◦ -88 (1101 1000),

◦ -1 (1000 0001),

◦ 0 (0000 0000 or 1000 0000),

◦ +1 (0000 0001),

◦ -127 (1111 1111),

◦ +127 (0111 1111).

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

Answers to self practice exercise
 5). Using 1’s complement
◦ +88 (0101 1000),

◦ -88 (1010 0111),

◦ -1 (1111 1110),

◦ 0 (0000 0000 or 1111 1111),

◦ +1 (0000 0001),

◦ -127 (1000 0000),

◦ +127 (0111 1111).. COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 END OF LESSON

THANK YOU

COM211 - Computer Architecture 1

 LESSON 1B
FLOATING POINT ARITHMETIC
 FLOATING POINT ARITHMETIC
In computers, floating-point numbers are represented
in scientific notation of fraction (F) and exponent (E)
with a radix of 2, in the form:
N = F x 2E
= 1.m x 2e.

Both E and F can be positive as well as negative.

Modern computers adopt IEEE 754 standard for

representing floating-point numbers.

There are two representation schemes: 32-bit single-

precision and 64-bit double-precision.
 LESSON 4
FLOATING POINT ARITHMETIC
In computers, floating-point numbers are represented
in scientific notation of fraction (F) and exponent (E)
with a radix of 2, in the form:
N = 1.m x 2e.

Here the fraction part is

F = 1.m

While the stored exponent uses Excess 127 so

E = e + 127.
IEEE-754 32-bit Single-Precision Floating-
Point Numbers
In 32-bit single-precision floating-point
representation:

The most significant bit is the sign bit (S), with 0 for
negative numbers and 1 for positive numbers.

The following 8 bits represent exponent (E).

The remaining 23 bits represents fraction (F)

Normalized Form
Example, suppose we have the following 32-
bit pattern:
1 1000 0001 011 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000,

Then:
S = 1
E = 1000 0001
m = 011 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
In the normalized form, the actual fraction is
normalized with an implicit leading 1 in the
form of F = 1.m.
Normalized Form
Example, suppose that the 32-bit pattern is 1
1000 0001 011 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000,
m = mantissa
Then: F = 1.m
In this example, the actual fraction is
F = 1.011 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
= 1 + 1×2-2 + 1×2-3
= 1.375d.

Since sign bit S=1, this is a negative number,

i.e., -1.375d.
Normalized Form
In normalized form, the actual exponent is
e = E-127 (so-called excess-127 or bias-127).
 This is because we need to represent both positive
and negative exponents.

With an 8-bit E, ranging from 0 to 255, the excess-

127 scheme could provide actual exponent of -127 to
128.

In this example, e = E-127 = 129-127 = 2d.

Hence, the number represented is:

-1.375×22 = -5.5d.
Note: Better presentation
Example 1, suppose that the 32-bit pattern is
 1 1000 0001 011 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000,
Then:
S =1
E = 1000 0001 = 129d
m = 011 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
 The actual fraction in normalized form is
 F = 1.m = 1.011 0000 000 0000 0000.
In this example, e = E-127 = 129-127 = 2d.
Hence, the number represented is:

- 1.0110 x 22 = 101.10 = -5.5d.

 Note: Better presentation
Example 2, Convert -5.7510 to a single
precision floating point representation
 Answer:
-5.75 = -101.112

= - 1.01112 x 22
S=1 e=2
Therefore E = 2 + 127 = 129 = 1000 0001 2
m = 011 1000 0000 0000 0000 0000
Hence, the number represented is:
N = 1 1000 0001 0111 0000 0000 0000 0000 000
S E m
Note: Better presentation
EXAMPLE 3:
 What is the Single Precision (32 bits)
floating point representation for 19.625 in
hexadecimal

Solution:

19.62510 = 10011.1012

See next slide

Note: EXAMPLE 3:
Solution:
First convert 19.625 to binary
19 . 625

2 19 Carry Overs
2 9 R1 .625 x 2
2 4 R1 1 .250 x 2
2 2 R0 0 .500 x 2
2 1 R0 1 .00 x 2
2 0 R1

Thus 19.625 = (10011.101 ..)2

Note: EXAMPLE 3:
Solution:
 Thus 19.625 = 10011.1012
 = 1.0011 101 x 24
S = 0 (Positive)
e = 4 Therefore E = 127 + 4 = 131 = 1000 0011
 m = 001 1101 0000 0000 0000 0000

Hence, the number represented is:

N = 0 1000 0011 0011 1010 0000 0000 0000 000
S E m
= 4 1 9 D 0 0 0 0h
Note: EXAMPLE 4:
 Express 5.7510 in 32 bit floating point representation
First convert 5.75 to binary
 Solution:
2 5 . 75 x 2
 Thus 5.75 = 101.11
2
2
2R1
1R0
1 50 x 2
1 00
2 0R1
 = 1.0111 x 22 5.75 = 101. 11 b
= 1 . 0111 x 2 2

 S = 0 (Positive)
e = 2 Therefore E = 127 + 2 = 129 = 1000 0001
 m = 0111 0000 0000 0000 0000 000

 Hence, the number represented is:

N = 0 1000 0001 0111 0000 0000 0000 0000 000
S E m
= 4 0 B 8 0 0 0 0h
Note: EXAMPLE 5:
 Express - 54.62510 in 32 bit floating point representation
 Solution:
First convert 54.625 to binary
 Thus - 54.625 = - 36.A16 16 54 . 625 x 16
16 3 R 6 A 000 x 16
 = - 0011 0110. 1010 16 0 R 3 0 000

54.624 = 36.A h
 = - 1.1 0110 1010 x 25 = 0011 0110 . 1010 b

S = 1 (Negative)
e = 5 Therefore E = 127 + 5 = 132 = 1000 0100
 m = 1011 0101 0000 0000 0000 0000

 Hence, the number represented is:

N = 1 1000 0100 1011 0101 0000 0000 0000 000
S E m
= C2 5 A80 0 0h
Note: EXAMPLE 6:
 Express 313.12510 in 32 bit floating point representation
 Solution:
 Thus 313.125 = 139.216 First convert 313.125 to binary

16 313 . 125 x 16
 = 0001 0011 1001. 0010 16 19 R 9
16 1 R 3
2
0
000 x 16
000
16 0 R 1

313.124 = 139.2 h

= 1.0011 1001 0010 x 28 = 0001 00011 1001 . 0010 b


S = 0 (Positive)
e = 8 Therefore E = 127 + 8 = 135 = 1000 0111
 m = 0011 1001 0010 0000 0000 0000

 Hence, the number represented is:

N = 0 1000 0111 0011 1001 0010 0000 0000 000
S E m
STOP HERE

STOP
THANK YOU