CS162

Operating Systems and

Systems Programming
Lecture 21

Networking

April 12, 2006

Prof. Anthony D. Joseph
http://inst.eecs.berkeley.edu/~cs162
 Review: Networking Definitions
• Network: physical connection that allows two computers
to communicate
• Packet: unit of transfer, bits carried over the network
– Network carries packets from on CPU to another
– Destination gets interrupt when packet arrives
• Protocol: agreement between two parties as to how
information is to be transmitted
• Broadcast Network: Shared Communication Medium
• Delivery: How does a receiver know who packet is for?
– Put header on front of packet: [ Destination | Packet ]
– Everyone gets packet, discards if not the target
• Arbitration: Act of negotiating use of shared medium
• Point-to-point network: a network in which every
physical wire is connected to only two computers
• Switch: a bridge that transforms a shared-bus
(broadcast) configuration into a point-to-point network
• Router: a device that acts as a junction between two
networks to transfer data packets among them
4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.2
 Review: Ethernet
• Ethernet (early 80’s): first practical local area network
– It is the most common LAN for UNIX, PC, and Mac
– Use wire instead of radio, but still broadcast medium
• Key advance was in arbitration called CSMA/CD:
Carrier sense, multiple access/collision detection
– Carrier Sense: don’t send unless idle
» Don’t mess up communications already in process
– Collision Detect: sender checks if packet trampled.
» If so, abort, wait, and retry.
– Backoff Scheme: Choose wait time before trying again
• Adaptive randomized waiting strategy:
– Adaptive and Random: First time, pick random wait time
with some initial mean. If collide again, pick random value
from bigger mean wait time. Etc.
– Randomness is important to decouple colliding senders
– Scheme figures out how many people are trying to send!

4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.3

 Review: Point-to-Point Network design
Crossbar
Queue Queue

Queue Queue
Inputs Outputs
Queue Queue

Queue Queue
Control
(processor)

• Switches look like computers: inputs, memory, outputs

– In fact probably contains a processor
• Function of switch is to forward packet to output that
gets it closer to destination
• Can build big crossbar by combining smaller switches

Switch
Switch
Switch

3
2
1

• Can perform broadcast if necessary

4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.4
 Goals for Today

• Networking
– Network Protocols

Note: Some slides and/or pictures in the following are

adapted from slides ©2005 Silberschatz, Galvin, and Gagne.
Gagne
Many slides generated from my lecture notes by Kubiatowicz.
4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.5
 The Internet Protocol: “IP”
• The Internet is a large network of computers spread
across the globe
– According to the Internet Systems Consortium, there
were over 353 million computers as of July 2005
– In principle, every host can speak with every other one
under the right circumstances
• IP Packet: a network packet on the internet
• IP Address: a 32-bit integer used as the destination
of an IP packet
– Often written as four dot-separated integers, with each
integer from 0—255 (thus representing 8x4=32 bits)
– Example CS file server is: 169.229.60.83 ≡ 0xA9E53C53
• Internet Host: a computer connected to the Internet
– Host has one or more IP addresses used for routing
» Some of these may be private and unavailable for routing
– Not every computer has a unique IP address
» Groups of machines may share a single IP address
» In this case, machines have private addresses behind a
“Network Address Translation” (NAT) gateway
4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.6
 Address Subnets
• Subnet: A network connecting a set of hosts with
related destination addresses
• With IP, all the addresses in subnet are related by a
prefix of bits
– Mask: The number of matching prefix bits
» Expressed as a single value (e.g., 24) or a set of ones in a
32-bit value (e.g., 255.255.255.0)

• A subnet is identified by 32-bit value, with the bits

which differ set to zero, followed by a slash and a
mask
– Example: 128.32.131.0/24 designates a subnet in which
all the addresses look like 128.32.131.XX
– Same subnet: 128.32.131.0/255.255.255.0
• Difference between subnet and complete network range
– Subnet is always a subset of address range
– Once, subnet meant single physical broadcast wire; now,
less clear exactly what it means (virtualized by switches)
4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.7
 Address Ranges in IP
• IP address space divided into prefix-delimited ranges:
– Class A: NN.0.0.0/8
» NN is 1–126 (126 of these networks)
» 16,777,214 IP addresses per network
» 10.xx.yy.zz is private
– Class B: NN.MM.0.0/16
» NN is 128–191 (16,384 of these networks)
» 65,534 IP addresses per network
» 172.[16-31].xx.yy are private
– Class C: NN.MM.LL.0/24
» NN is 192–223 (2,097,151 of these networks)
» 254 IP addresses per networks
» 192.168.xx.yy are private
• Address ranges are often owned by organizations
– Can be further divided into subnets
4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.8
 Hierarchical Networking: The Internet
• How can we build a network with millions of hosts?
– Hierarchy! Not every host connected to every other one
– Use a network of Routers to connect subnets together
» Routing is often by prefix: e.g. first router matches first
8 bits of address, next router matches more, etc.

Other
subnets

subnet1
Transcontinental
Router Link

Router

Other
subnets Router subnet3
subnet2

4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.9

 Simple Network Terminology
• Local-Area Network (LAN) – designed to cover small
geographical area
– Multi-access bus, ring, or star network
– Speed ≈ 10 – 1000 Megabits/second
– Broadcast is fast and cheap
– In small organization, a LAN could consist of a single
subnet. In large organizations (like UC Berkeley), a LAN
contains many subnets
• Wide-Area Network (WAN) – links geographically
separated sites
– Point-to-point connections over long-haul lines (often
leased from a phone company)
– Speed ≈ 1.544 – 45 Megabits/second
– Broadcast usually requires multiple messages

4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.10

 Routing
• Routing: the process of forwarding packets hop-by-hop
through routers to reach their destination
– Need more than just a destination address!
» Need a path
– Post Office Analogy:
» Destination address on each letter is not
sufficient to get it to the destination
» To get a letter from here to Florida, must route to local
post office, sorted and sent on plane to somewhere in
Florida, be routed to post office, sorted and sent with
carrier who knows where street and house is…
• Internet routing mechanism: routing tables
– Each router does table lookup to decide which link to use
to get packet closer to destination
– Don’t need 4 billion entries in table: routing is by subnet
– Could packets be sent in a loop? Yes, if tables incorrect
• Routing table contains:
– Destination address range → output link closer to
destination
– Default entry (for subnets without explicit entries)
4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.11
 Setting up Routing Tables
• How do you set up routing tables?
– Internet has no centralized state!
» No single machine knows entire topology
» Topology constantly changing (faults, reconfiguration, etc)
– Need dynamic algorithm that acquires routing tables
» Ideally, have one entry per subnet or portion of address
» Could have “default” routes that send packets for unknown
subnets to a different router that has more information
• Possible algorithm for acquiring routing table
– Routing table has “cost” for each entry
» Includes number of hops to destination, congestion, etc.
» Entries for unknown subnets have infinite cost
– Neighbors periodically exchange routing tables
» If neighbor knows cheaper route to a subnet, replace your
entry with neighbors entry (+1 for hop to neighbor)
• In reality:
– Internet has networks of many different scales
– Different algorithms run at different scales
4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.12
 Administrivia

• Exam reminders:
– MIDTERM II: April 26th
» All material from last midterm and up to Monday 4/24
» Lectures #13 – 24

– Final Exam group #17:

» Thursday, May 18, 2006 12:30-3:30pm
» Final will be comprehensive with a focus on lectures #24 –
27

• Phase 3 due Tue 4/18

4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.13

 Network Protocols
• Protocol: Agreement between two parties as to how
information is to be transmitted
– Example: system calls are the protocol between the
operating system and application
– Networking examples: many levels
» Physical level: mechanical and electrical network (e.g. how
are 0 and 1 represented)
» Link level: packet formats/error control (for instance, the
CSMA/CD protocol)
» Network level: network routing, addressing
» Transport Level: reliable message delivery
• Protocols on today’s Internet:
WWW e-mail
NFS ssh
RPC
Transport UDP TCP
Network IP
Physical/Link Ethernet ATM Packet radio
4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.14
 Network Layering
• Layering: building complex services from simpler ones
– Each layer provides services needed by higher layers by
utilizing services provided by lower layers
• The physical/link layer is pretty limited
– Packets are of limited size (called the “Maximum Transfer
Unit or MTU: often 200-1500 bytes in size)
– Routing is limited to within a physical link (wire) or perhaps
through a switch
• Our goal in the following is to show how to construct a
secure, ordered, message service routed to anywhere:
Physical Reality: Packets Abstraction: Messages
Limited Size Arbitrary Size
Unordered (sometimes) Ordered
Unreliable Reliable
Machine-to-machine Process-to-process
Only on local area net Routed anywhere
Asynchronous Synchronous
4/12/06 Insecure
Joseph CS162 ©UCB Secure
Spring 2006 Lec 21.15
 Building a messaging service
• Handling Arbitrary Sized Messages:
– Must deal with limited physical packet size
– Split big message into smaller ones (called fragments)
» Must be reassembled at destination
– Checksum computed on each fragment or whole message
• Internet Protocol (IP): Must find way to send packets
to arbitrary destination in network
– Deliver messages unreliably (“best effort”) from one
machine in Internet to another
– Since intermediate links may have limited size, must be
able to fragment/reassemble packets on demand
– Includes 256 different “sub-protocols” build on top of IP
» Examples: ICMP(1), TCP(6), UDP (17), IPSEC(50,51)

4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.16

 IP Packet Format
• IP Packet Format:

IP Header Size of datagram Flags &

Length (header+data) Fragmentation
0 15 16 31 to split large
IP Ver4 messages
4 IHL ToS Total length(16-bits)
16-bit identification flags 13-bit frag off
Time to IP header
TTL protocol 16-bit header checksum 20 bytes
Live (hops)
32-bit source IP address
Type of 32-bit destination IP address
transport options (if any)
protocol
Data

4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.17

 Building a messaging service
• Process to process communication
– Basic routing gets packets from machine→machine
– What we really want is routing from process→process
» Example: ssh, email, ftp, web browsing
– Several IP protocols include notion of a “port”, which is a
16-bit identifiers used in addition to IP addresses
» A communication channel (connection) defined by 5 items:
[source address, source port, dest address, dest port,
protocol]

• UDP: The User Datagram Protocol

– UDP layered on top of basic IP (IP Protocol 17)
» Unreliable, unordered, user-to-user communication
IP Header
(20 bytes)
16-bit source port 16-bit destination port
16-bit UDP length 16-bit UDP checksum

UDP Data

4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.18

 Building a messaging service (con’t)
• UDP: The Unreliable Datagram Protocol
– Datagram: an unreliable, unordered, packet sent from
source user → dest user (Call it UDP/IP)
– Important aspect: low overhead!
» Often used for high-bandwidth video streams
» Many uses of UDP considered “anti-social” – none of the
“well-behaved” aspects of (say) TCP/IP
• But we need ordered messages
– Create ordered messages on top of unordered ones
» IP can reorder packets! P0,P1 might arrive as P1,P0
– How to fix this? Assign sequence numbers to packets
» 0,1,2,3,4…..
» If packets arrive out of order, reorder before delivering
to user application
» For instance, hold onto #3 until #2 arrives, etc.
– Sequence numbers are specific to particular connection

4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.19

 Performance Considerations
• Before continue, need some performance metrics
– Overhead: CPU time to put packet on wire
– Throughput: Maximum number of bytes per second
» Depends on “wire speed”, but also limited by slowest router
(routing delay) or by congestion at routers
– Latency: time until first bit of packet arrives at receiver
» Raw transfer time + overhead at each routing hop

Router Router

LW1 LR1 LW2 LR2 Lw3

• Contributions to Latency
– Wire latency: depends on speed of light on wire
» about 1–1.5 ns/foot
– Router latency: depends on internals of router
» Could be < 1 ms (for a good router)
» Question: can router handle full wire throughput?
4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.20
BREAK
 Sample Computations
• E.g.: Ethernet within Soda
– Latency: speed of light in wire is 1.5ns/foot, which
implies latency in building < 1 μs (if no routers in path)
– Throughput: 10-1000Mb/s
– Throughput delay: packet doesn’t arrive until all bits
» So: 4KB/100Mb/s = 0.3 milliseconds (same order as disk!)
• E.g.: ATM within Soda
– Latency (same as above, assuming no routing)
– Throughput: 155Mb/s
– Throughput delay: 4KB/155Mb/s = 200μ
• E.g.: ATM cross-country
– Latency (assuming no routing):
» 3000miles * 5000ft/mile ⇒ 15 milliseconds
– How many bits could be in transit at same time?
» 15ms * 155Mb/s = 290KB
– In fact, Berkeley→MIT Latency ~ 45ms
» 872KB in flight if routers have wire-speed throughput
• Requirements for good performance:
– Local area: minimize overhead/improve bandwidth
– Wide area: keep pipeline full!

4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.22

 Reliable Message Delivery: the Problem
• All physical networks can garble and/or drop packets
– Physical media: packet not transmitted/received
» If transmit close to maximum rate, get more throughput –
even if some packets get lost
» If transmit at lowest voltage such that error correction
just starts correcting errors, get best power/bit
– Congestion: no place to put incoming packet
» Point-to-point network: insufficient queue at switch/router
» Broadcast link: two host try to use same link
» In any network: insufficient buffer space at destination
» Rate mismatch: what if sender send faster than receiver
can process?
• Reliable Message Delivery
– Reliable messages on top of unreliable packets
– Need some way to make sure that packets actually make
it to receiver
» Every packet received at least once
» Every packet received only once
– Can combine with ordering: every packet received by
process at destination exactly once and in order
4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.23
 Using Acknowledgements
A B A B
Packe Packe
t t
Timeout
ack Packe
t

ack
• How to ensure transmission of packets?
– Detect garbling at receiver via checksum, discard if bad
– Receiver acknowledges (by sending “ack”) when packet
received properly at destination
– Timeout at sender: if no ack, retransmit
• Some questions:
– If the sender doesn’t get an ack, does that mean the
receiver didn’t get the original message?
» No
– What it ack gets dropped? Or if message gets delayed?
» Sender doesn’t get ack, retransmits. Receiver gets
message twice, acks each.
4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.24
 How to deal with message duplication
• Solution: put sequence number in message to identify
re-transmitted packets
– Receiver checks for duplicate #’s; Discard if detected
• Requirements:
– Sender keeps copy of unack’ed messages
» Easy: only need to buffer messages
– Receiver tracks possible duplicate messages
» Hard: when ok to forget about received message?
• Simple solution: Alternating-bit protocol
– Send one message at a time; don’t send A B
Pkt #
next message until ack received 0
– Sender keeps last message; receiver c k #0
tracks sequence # of last message received A
Pkt #
• Pros: simple, small overhead 1
• Con: Poor performance c k #1
A
– Wire can hold multiple messages; want to Pkt #
fill up at (wire latency × throughput) 0
• Con: doesn’t work if network can delay c k #0
A
or duplicate messages arbitrarily
4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.25
 Conclusion
• Network: physical connection that allows two
computers to communicate
– Packet: sequence of bits carried over the network
• Broadcast Network: Shared Communication Medium
– Transmitted packets sent to all receivers
– Arbitration: act of negotiating use of shared medium
» Ethernet: Carrier Sense, Multiple Access, Collision Detect
• Point-to-point network: a network in which every
physical wire is connected to only two computers
– Switch: a bridge that transforms a shared-bus
(broadcast) configuration into a point-to-point network.
• Protocol: Agreement between two parties as to how
information is to be transmitted
• Internet Protocol (IP)
– Used to route messages through routes across globe
– 32-bit addresses, 16-bit ports
• Reliable, Ordered, Arbitrary-sized Messaging:
– Built through protocol layering on top of unreliable,
limited-sized, non-ordered packet transmission links
4/12/06 Joseph CS162 ©UCB Spring 2006 Lec 21.26