Little Star Hr. Sec.

School
CHAPTER 22:
CHEMICAL
COORDINATION AND
INTEGRATION
Learning Material Prepared By Miss Ruphes, Supervisor, LSHSS
Endocrine glands are group
of glands without ducts and
secrete group of chemicals
called hormones. This
system jointly coordinates
and regulates the body’s
physiological functions.
Hormones are non-nutrient
chemicals which act as
intercellular messengers
and are produced in trace
amount. They are release
into the blood and
transported to target organs
by the blood.
• Target organ- Specific organ
on which the a hormone
acts.
Endocrine System of Human:
It consists of pituitary gland,
pineal gland, thyroid gland,
parathyroid glands, thymus,
pancreas, adrenal glands,
testis (man) and ovaries
(female) including tissues/
cells of gastrointestinal
tract, liver, kidney and
heart.
 Hypothalamus
It is present in a portion of the
forebrain called diencephalon. It
contains Neuroscretory cells called
nuclei that secretes neurosecretory
hormones that controls the synthesis
and secretion of pituitary hormones.
Neurosecretory hormones can be
stimulatory which stimulates the
pituitary gland to secrets its
hormones. Eg: (GnRH) or inhibitory
and inhibit pituitary from releasing
The posterior pituitary is under the
its hormones. Eg: Somatostatin. direct neural regulation of the
These hormones are transported to hypothalamus.
pituitary gland through portal
circulatory system in order to
regulate the function of pituitary
gland.
 Pituitary gland
It is Present in bony cavity called
sella tursica attached to the
hypothalamus of the brain by a
stalk. Anatomically it is divided into
Adenohypophysis/anterior pituitary
and Neurohypophysis/posterior
pituitary.
The Anterior pituitary is divided into
2 regions:
1. pars distalis which secretes the
following hormones:
a. Growth hormone (GH)- it
regulates growth and
development in children and
adolescents.
b. Prolactin (PRL)- regulates growth of mammary gland and formation of
milk.
c. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates the thyroid to release
thyroid hormones.
d. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the adrenal glands to
release a group of steroid hormones called glucocorticoids.
e. Gonadotropins- leutinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH)- the former induces ovulation and maintain corpus luteum
while the later regulates spermatogenesis and development of graafian
follicles.
2. Pars intermedia produces
melanocyte stimulating
hormones (MSH) which
stimulate the melanocytes to
produce melanin.
Posterior pituitary: it does not
secrete any hormone but stores
Oxytocin and Vasopressin
which are synthesized by
hypothalamus. Oxytocin
stimulates the contraction of
smooth muscles and uterus in
female at the time parturition
and ejection of milk from
mammary glands at the time of
While vasopressin stimulates reabsorption of water and
electrolytes from the tubules of nephrons. Abnormal (Hyper/hypo)
secretion of hormones causes disorders. Eg: hyper secretion of
Growth hormone (GH) causes abnormal increase in height, a
condition called Gigantism and whereas hypo secretion of GH
causes stunted growth, a condition called Dwarfism.

Jungrey Balawing
Pineal gland: smallest organ in
human body, situated at the
dorsal side of the forebrain
enveloped by cerebrum.
It Secretes a hormone called
melatonin which regulates 24
hour diurnal rhythm of our
body- sleep wake cycle and
body temperature.
 Thyroid gland
It consists of two lobes on each side of
the trachea joint together by connective
tissue called isthmus. It is made up of
follicles and stromal tissues. The
follicular cells synthesize hormones
called tetraiodothyronine/thyroxine
(T4) and triidothyronine (T3). It is
involve in digestion, heart and muscle
function. It controls all the metabolic
activity including energy production. It
also increases the metabolic rate and
regulate BMR
BMR- rate of energy expenditure when
the body is at rest to carryout vital
functions of the body like respiration,
body temperature etc.
Iodine is an important constituent
for the formation of these
hormones. Its deficiency causes
enlargement of thyroid gland and
goitre and affect the production of
thyroid hormones.
Hypothyroidism during pregnancy
causes cretinism in developing
embryo, mental retardation, low IQ,
abnormal skin, deaf mutism etc. In
adult women deficiency causes
irregular menstrual cycle.
Thyroid cancer or development of
thyroid nodules lead abnormal level
of thyroid hormones resulting in a
condition called hyperthyroidism.
The individual may suffer from fast
heart rate, increased appetite,
 Parathyroid gland
It is 4 in nos.- 2 each situated in
the 2 lobes of thyroid gland at
the back. This gland
synthesizes and secretes
parathyroid hormones
(hypercalcemic hormone). It
regulates Ca level in the blood
by demineralisation from bone
and reabsorption from kidney
tubules and digested food,
thereby increases the Ca2+
level in the blood.
 Thymus
It is lobular gland located in
between two lungs above the
heart. It secretes a peptide
hormone called thymosin. It is
involved in development of
immune system. It brings
about differentiation of T-
lymphocytes (Cell- mediated
immunity) and production of
Antibodies (humoral immunity)
by the B cells.
It is the only gland
that degenerates as we ages
and weakens the immune
system.
 Adrenal gland
Human have a pair of adrenal glands;
each situated at the anterior end of the
kidneys.
Each gland is divided into outer
cortex and inner medulla
-Medulla releases hormones called
adrenaline and noradrenaline which
are commonly called catecholamines.
They are also known as emergency
hormones or fight or flight hormones
as they help the body to deal with
emergency situations.
These hormones increase alertness,
pupillary dilation, piloerection,
sweating, increased heart beat and
respiration.
They also regulate the break down of glycogen to increase the
concentration of glucose in the blood.
The adrenal cortex releases a group of hormones called corticoids.
Glucocorticoids are involved in glucose metabolism while mineralocorticoids
like regulate the water and electrolyte balance in the body. Cortisol is the
main glucocorticoid and Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid.
Glucocorticoids also stimulate gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and proteolysis.
Cortisol also maintains the cardio-
vascular system, kidney function,
produces anti-inflammatory reactions
and suppresses the immune response
and stimulate RBCs production.
Aldosterone acts on renal tubule and
brings about reabsorption of water
and Na+ ions and secretion of K+ and
phosphate ions.
Some androgenic steroids are also
secreted by the adrenal cortex that
causes growth of the axial, pubic and
facial hairs during puberty.
 Pancreas
It is a leaf like gland
Situated at the duodenal
loop and function as a
composite gland .i.e., it acts
as exocrine gland as well as
endocrine gland.
 The endocrine part of pancreas is made up of α and β
cells which forms a an endocrine tissue called islets of
Langerhans. α- cells secretes Glucagon (hyperglycemia) that
promote glycogenolysis in the hepatocytes of liver. This
hormone checks the lower blood glucose level. Whereas β-
cells synthesizes insulin (hypoglycaemia), check upper
glucose level and promote glycogenesis where glucose is
converted into glycogen and stored in the hepatocytes and
adipocytes (adipose tissue).
Prolonged hyperglycemia causes diabetes mellitus and
is characterised by the presence of glucose and ketone bodies
in the urine. It can be treated with insulin therapy and change
in the life style.
Testes
Human male have a pair of
testes also known as the male
gonads and are the primary male
sex organs. They are placed in
the scrotal sac outside the
abdominal cavity.
Each testis is composed of
seminiferous tubules and
stromal or interstitial tissue. The
leydig cells/interstitial cells
present in the intertubular
spaces synthesized a group of
hormones called androgens; of
which testosterone is the main
androgen.
Androgens regulate growth of accessory sex organs and
secondary sexual characters. They also stimulate the process
of spermatogenesis and also regulate carbohydrate and
protein metabolism.
 Ovary
There a pair of ovaries present in
human female also known as the
female gonads. They formed the
primary female sex organs and are
situated one on each side of
abdomen.
Each ovary is composed of a
ovarian follicles and stromal
tissues. The growing ovarian
follicles synthesize a hormone
called estrogen which stimulates
growth and activities of secondary
sex organs, determines secondary
sexual characteristics and growth
of mammary glands.
 The ruptured empty
graafian follicle, after
ovulation is transformed into
an endocrine tissue in the
ovary Corpus luteum which
secretes progesterone.
Progesterone maintains the
endometrial lining which is
essential for pregnancy and
prevents uterine contraction
to prevent expulsion of the
fetus, hence known as
pregnancy hormone. It also
stimulates the formation of
alveolar sac of mammary
glands and milk secretion for
lactation in mothers.
 Endocrine tissues
Heart- the Atrial wall of the
heart secretes a hormone
called atrial natriuretic factor
when blood pressure is
increased. This hormone
causes vasodilation of blood
and reduces the blood
pressure.
Juxta glomerular cells:
secretes erythropoietin which
stimulates Erythropoiesis
(formation of RBCs). These
cells also secrete a hormone
called renin when the GFR
Vasoconstriction
Renin induces vasoconstriction of blood vessels in order to increase
blood flow towards the kidneys to increase GFR.
Gastrointestinal tract: endocrine cells present in the gastrointestinal
tract synthesize a hormones which include
gastrin, secretin, cholecyctokinin (CCK) and gastric
inhibitory peptide (GIP).
Gastrin acts on the gastric glands stimulating them to
secrete HCl and pepsinogen.
Secretin stimulates the pancreas to synthesize water and
bicarbonate ions.
CCK stimulates pancreas and gall bladder to secrete
pancreatic enzymes and bile juice.
Whereas GIP inhibits the gastric glands to secrete HCL
and pepsinogen and their transport.
Growth factors are also secreted by many non-endocrine
tissues which are involve in growth of tissues and their
repair or regeneration.
 Mechanism of hormone action
How do a hormone bring about their action?
A hormone bind to a receptor forming hormone-receptor complex.
Receptor is a hormone specific protein present on plasma membrane
(membrane-bound receptor) or inside the cytoplasm of a cell (intracellular
receptor). Each receptor is specific and binds to one hormone. Whenever a
hormone-receptor complex is formed, the target tissue undergoes biochemical
changes bringing about metabolism of that tissue. Hence the physiological
function is regulated.
On the basis of chemical nature, hormones are of following types:
i) peptide, polypeptide, protein hormones are hormones made up of proteins.
Eg: insulin, glucagon, pituitary hormones, hypothalamic hormones etc.
ii) Steroids- made up of cholesterol, containing 4 carbon rings Eg: Cortisol.
Testosterone, estrogens and progesterone.
iii) Iodothyronines- derive from tyrosine and iodine. Eg: thyroid hormones
iv) amino acid derivatives- any derivative of amino acid as a result of reaction at
amino group, carboxyl group or replacement of H atom, or side chain
functional group.
Hormones that bind to membrane bound receptors does not enter the
target cells. Instead on binding with the receptors on the cell membrane,
they generate second messengers like cyclic AMP (adenosine
monophosphate), IP3 (inositol triphosphate), Ca++ etc., which in turn
regulate metabolism. This mechanism carried out by protein hormones.
Whereas the some hormones such as the steroid hormones enter the
cytoplasm of the cell and binds to their receptors present there. They
regulate gene expression or chromosomal function by interacting with the
genome. The genes on expression control the physiological functions.