ADVANCED CONTROL &

INSTRUMENTATION

SUPERVISOR:
NONSO, CCST(ISA).,CGLI(UK)
DIRECTOR OF TRAINING:
OLULEYE OLUOKUN, M.Sc (UK)., MNSE., FIMC., MSOE(UK).
 Introduction

Process Control Instrumentation systems are very complex

These complex systems are made up of smaller, simpler systems

These small systems are called Control Loops

 Simple Control Loops

All Electrical Control Loops have the following elements:

Sensing Element

Measuring Element

Controller Element

Final Control Element

 Simple Control Loops

FINAL
LRC CONTROL
ELEMENT
LEVEL
SENSING LRC LIQUID INLET

FINAL
CONTROL
ELEMENT

PROCESS
VESSEL

LIQUID OUTLET
 Simple Control Loops

Sensing Element
The Sensing Element is the device that detects the required
process variable, such as
Orifice Plate
Float Switch
Thermocouple
 Simple Control Loops

Measuring Element
The Measuring Element receives the electrical signal from the
Sensing Element

It Measures the process variable

The Measuring Element sends the actual process variable value

to the Controlling Element
 Simple Control Loops

Control (Controller) Element

The Controller Element is the device that receives the electrical
signal from the Measuring Element

The Controller Element compares the Actual process variable

measurement with the Set Value

The Controller Element calculates (computes) the size of the

electrical signal to be sent to the Final Control Element to
bring the actual process variable value back to the set value
 Simple Control Loops
Final Control Element

The Final Control Element receives the correction signal from the
Controlling Element

The Final Control Element follows the command sent by the

Controlling Element and moves to adjust the process variable

Examples:
Needle Valve
Pressure Control Valve
 Simple Control Loops

The basic control loops

Flow Control
Level Control
Pressure Control
Temperature Control
Simplified Flow Control Loop
Simplified Level Control Loop
Simplified Pressure Control Loop
Simplified Temperature Control Loop
 Input & Output Signals

Input & Output signals are electronic messages sent from one
device to another in a control loop

The output from one device may become the input for another

OUTPUT INPUT
SIGNAL SIGNAL

DEVICE DEVICE
A B
 Data Transfer

Signals in a control loop give information (Data) about a variable

To transmit (move) this Data it must be changed into a form that

can be used & read by each device

Transducers & Transmitters make the signals useable & send

them to the next element in the control loop

These signals are transmitted between elements of a control loop

using electrical or pneumatic lines

The movement of signals is called Data Transfer

 Data Transfer

OUTPUT INPUT
SIGNAL SIGNAL

MEASURING CONTROL
ELEMENT ELEMENT

TRANSMITTER
 Types of Signals

There are three different types of Signals :

Binary – has only two values, on / off (e.g. thermostat)

Analogue – gives continuous range of values without a break

(e.g. speedometer)

Digital – gives a series of pulses (e.g. a digital clock)

If an instrument cannot understand the input sent by the

Transmitter, a Transducer changes the signal to the required
type
 Data Transfer

OUTPUT INPUT
SIGNAL SIGNAL

MEASURING CONTROL
ELEMENT ELEMENT

TRANSDUCER
TRANSMITTER
 Data Transfer

A Computer Chip can only read and write Digital signals

If the receiving or transmitting element is a computer, the

signal must be digital

Signals from Sensor Elements are normally Analogue

(continuous)

Most Final Control Elements require Analogue signals

 Types of Control Loops

Manual Control Loop

Where the Operator must perform one or more tasks in the loop

The control cycle:

1. Observe the process by checking the Measuring Element

2. Compare observed Actual Value with Set Point Value
3. Adjust the Final Control Element as required
4. Wait for the process to respond
5. Repeat the cycle to correct any errors
 Types of Control Loops
Automatic Control Loops
In Automatic Control Loops instruments and mechanical devices
do all the work
The Control Element is a PID* Controller
The PID Controller makes calculations based on the Current
Value compared to the Set Point Value
The result of the calculations is sent as a Data Signal to adjust the
Final Control Element

*PID = Proportional, Integral & Derivative

 Transmitters

Transmitters in the Control Loop send information collected by the

Sensors to the Control Element

Control loop signals are sent as electrical or pneumatic (air)

signals

Electrical signals are faster than Pneumatic signals

Transmitters also send signals to other system devices:

Alarms
Safety Devices
Recorders & Indicators
 Controllers

The job of a Controller is to compare the Measured Value of the

variable with the Set Point Value

Any difference is called a Deviation

If the Deviation is zero, no correction is needed

If the Deviation is not zero, a signal is sent to the Final Control

Element
 Open & Closed Loop Control
Open Loop Control means that changes in the process variable
do not affect the controlled output

% O/P CONTROLLER
Indicator
SP 60%

Controlling
Signal

Set Point
Adjustment

INPUT OUTPUT
PROCESS

Control Valve
 Open & Closed Loop Control

In Closed Loop Control a Controller a Feedback Loop is added

Error Process Controller

MV 15.20
(Deviation)
Indication MV Signal
SP 14.85
Feed
Controlling A/M Back
Signal
PT Transmitter Loop
Auto Set Point
Manual Adjustment

INPUT OUTPUT
PROCESS

Control
Valve
 Open & Closed Loop Control

The Feedback Loop contains a Sensor that measures the Actual

Value of the controlled variable and generates a signal which is
sent to the Controller

The Controller compares the Set Point Value to the Actual Value
(Deviation) and sends a signal to the Final Control Element

This is repeated until the loop reaches equilibrium (balance)

called Steady State
 Open Loop Vs Closed Loop

The following diagrams show the same process with both Open
Loop and Closed Loop control systems
The objective is to maintain a set level in the tank (the Set Point
Value)
The Controlled Variable is the Level of liquid in the tank
The Adjusted Variable is the flow rate out of the tank
The Final Control Element is a hand operated valve in the open
loop and a pneumatically operated valve in the closed loop
 Open Loop Vs Closed Loop

Inflow

LEVEL
Outflow

Manual Valve

Open Loop Process Control System

 Open Loop Vs Closed Loop

Open Loop

In the Open Loop System, the manual valve is adjusted so that

the output flow balances the input flow to keep a certain level
in the tank

If however, something affects the output or input flow rate, the level
of liquid will change
 Open Loop Vs Closed Loop

Open Loop

If the system is operating in the Open Loop mode it cannot sense

or correct changes in the level of the liquid

Thus, the operator monitors the level and adjusts the valve
continuously to maintain the desired level in the tank

This is a time-consuming task and not very accurate

 Open Loop Vs Closed Loop
Closed Loop Process Control System
Inflow
Level
Set Point
Controller Adjustment
MV Signal
Controlling
Signal

LEVEL
Outflow
LT

Level Control Valve

Transmitter
 Open Loop Vs Closed Loop

In the Closed Loop System a Level Transmitter sends a signal

equal to the level in the tank to the Controller

The Controller compares this (Actual Value) signal to the Set

Point Value

The Controller calculates the Deviation and sends a signal to the

Flow Control Valve (Final Control Element), adjusting the
valve until the loop reaches Steady State

Because the Closed Loop System is automatic, it doesn’t need

constant attendance of an Operator
 PID Controller
PID stands for Proportional, Integral, Derivative

PID Controllers are designed to prevent the need for continuous

operator attention

Different processes require different control terms

e.g. Level Control can use P + I and
Temperature Control can use P + I + D

The values for each control term is determined by a combination

of:

The experience of the Control Engineer

Controller Tuning
 Controller Tuning

To provide the optimum performance from a control system it is

‘tuned’ to meet the requirements of the user

This means that the Control Engineer will determine values for
the control parameters (PID) by carrying out a number of tests
on the whole control system

This can be done by:

1. Using a computer model to determine initial values
2. Using the Automatic Tuning functions of the Controller
3. Manually testing the process control system
4. A combination of 1 and 3 methods
 Controller Tuning

A number of different manual tuning tests can be performed to

determine values for the Controllers parameters

Dependant upon the process characteristics (i.e. the value of dead-

time in the system) one of two configurations will be used:

1. Open Loop (significant dead-time)

2. Closed Loop (No appreciable ‘dead-time’)

‘Dead-time’ is the time before any change in the MV (Measured

Value) is seen by the controller following an change in its output
signal
 Instrumentation Alarms

Digital Controllers can be programmed to give an alarm signal to

warn of certain process conditions

For example:

Measured variable = or > High Limit

Measured variable < or = Low Limit
Error (Deviation) outside of tolerance band
Rate of change of the Measured Variable outside of limits
 Instrumentation Alarms

Alarm signals can be given Visually (e.g. Flashing Light) and/or

Audibly (e.g. Klaxon)

Additionally, modern DCS systems will provide a Text Message

warning on a VDU and/or Print-out

Annunciator Panels, e.g. ‘V101 High Level’, are used to display

multiple alarm signals
 Process Trend Recoding

The majority of process

control systems use
trend recording
devices such as:

Chart Recorders

(A coloured pen-line that

is proportional to the
magnitude of the MV
signal drawn on a
white scaled paper-
chart. The chart is
moved by an electric
motor at a selected
speed e.g. 10cm/hour)
 Process Trend Recording

Process control systems use trend recording devices like:

Data Logger (A multi-channel instrument with digital to

analogue data conversion which enables the MV signals
to be recorded as digital values and displayed as analogue
traces on a VDU screen
Additionally, such instruments can be directly connected via
the network to enable the remote access of its data by a
controlling PC)
 Process Trend Recording

Here the Measured Variable (MV) and the Controller Output

signal are being displayed on the chart

Level
Controller
0% 50
100

Set Point

Level
Outflow
Chart Recorder
LT
 Process Trend Recording

Data Loggers produce a graphical record of the input signals over

a period of time

It is important to record trends as many processes are very slow to

react to a change in the controller output signal and the trend
graph provides a ‘picture’ of the process changes over a period
of time that can range from minutes to days

Most trend recorders have the ability to provide process alarm

functions just as Controllers do
 Auto / Manual Control

With Controller set to ‘Auto’ the MV signal is compared with the

Set Point (SP) and the Error signal automatically corrects for
any deviation
The SP value and the Error value are typically displayed

Error Process Controller

MV 15.20
(Deviation)
Indication SP 14.85 MV Signal

Controlli A/M
ng Signal PT Transmitter
Auto Set Point
Manual Adjustment

Input Output
Process

Control
Valve
 Auto / Manual Control

With Controller set to ‘Manual’ the Set Point (SP) adjustments

directly control the percentage output of the controller
The percentage output value and the MV are typically displayed

Percentage Process Controller

MV 15.20
Output
Indication MV Signal
% 60.0

Controlling A/M
Signal
PT Transmitter
Auto Set Point
Manual Adjustment

Input Output
Process

Control Valve
 On / Off Control

This is a simple and cost effective solution to a number of control

problems
In a Level Control system shown a Float Switch acts as both the
Sensor (the Float) and the On / Off Controller (Micro-switch)
Disadvantages are:
The average level lies between the High Level and Low Level
switch points i.e. It varies between theses two limits
Constant cycling of the SV, Control Valve and Float Switch
cause wear and will limit its useful life
The following diagrams show a typical On/Off (Two-Step) control
action
 On / Off (Two-Step) Control Action

ON / OFF Control (Fill Cycle)

In the diagram the Low Level has been reached, the switch is
closed, the SV is energised and open (due to the coil) and the
inflow has started

Switch
Low
Level
Float
+24V
0V LEVEL
Outflow
Air Supply

Solenoid
Valve
 On / Off (Two-Step) Control Action

On / Off Control (Empty Cycle)

In the diagram the High Level has been reached, the switch is
open, the SV is de-energised and closed (due to the Return
Spring) and the inflow has stopped
The Fill and Empty Cycles are then continuously repeated

Switch
High
Level

+24V
0V LEVEL
Outflow
Air Supply

Solenoid
Valve
Manual Valve
 Cascade Control

In certain control situations more than one process variable will

affect the control of the measured variable, for example:
Set Point

Inflow
Level
Set Point
MV Signal Controller Adjustment

Control
Signal
Outflow
Level
Level

Tank 1 Tank 2
LT
 Cascade Control

The problem with the previous system is that changes in the level
in Tank 1 are now affected by the level in Tank 2
A solution is to use Cascade Control which requires additional
signals and components to modify the Level Control System
into a Cascade Level Control System
These are:
A second measured variable (Flow) which is faster changing
than the primary measured variable (Level)
A second Controller for the Inner Control Loop
The use of the Remote Set-Point input on the Secondary
Controller
 Cascade Control

Set Point
MV1
Outer Loop Level
Controller

Inflow Inner Loop

Remote Set Point

Flow Set Point

Controller Adjustment

MV
Signal MV2
Output
Level
FT Level

LT Tank 1 Tank 2
 Introduction to DCS & PLC

DCS is Distributed Control System

A DCS is a control system which allows the processes in the Oil /

Gas plants to be monitored and controlled from different points
at the same time

PLC is Programmable Logic Controller

PLC's are used in safety systems to shut down a process in an

emergency
 Distributed Control Systems (DCS)

GAS
FRACTIONATION
COLUMN UNIT
(PROCESS)
LOCAL DATA HIGHWAYS
CONTROL
UNIT
GAS STEAM
COMPRESSION GENERATION
UNIT UNIT
LOCAL LOCAL
CONTROL CONTROL
UNIT UNIT

CENTRAL
CONTROL
ROOM
 Distributed Control Systems (DCS)

The system shown has three separate Process Units:

Gas Fractionation Unit
Gas Compression Unit
Steam Generation Unit

Each units has it’s own Local Control Unit

There are several Control Loops in each Process Unit

These are controlled by the Process Unit’s own Local Control

Unit
 Distributed Control Systems (DCS)

Process information is sent by a single cable (Data highway) from

the Local Control Unit (LCU) to the Central Control Room
(CCR)
This information is shown on a Video Display Unit (VDU) [same
as a computer monitor in the CCR]
The CCR operator can change the set points in the control loops
to open / close motor‑operated valves (MOV) on the plant
This is done by using a computer to send signals back along the
same data highways
 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

The job of a PLC is to control a sequence of actions

PLCs are NOT for controlling Loops or Process Units

You can't shut down a processing plant by pressing one

button

Processing units must be shut down in a certain order (sequence)

PLC's provide electronic switching operations for:

Emergency Shut-Down Operations
Fire Alarm Systems
Sequential On/Off Control Operations
 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

PLC's only operate the switching sequence

The sequence is controlled by a computer software programme

The software programmes which control the switching sequence

are designed and written by Software Engineers & are set up
(programmed) by PLC Programmers

Operators cannot change the programmes

Once a PLC is activated (starts to work) it cannot be stopped until

the programme sequence has finished
 How a PLC Works
When the plant is working normally the PLC is energized
When the PLC is energized an electrical digital signal holds the
micro processor in the "operating" mode
The micro processor holds the switches in the "energized" mode
In an emergency, the PLC operates the switching sequence
which shuts down the plant. The micro processor in the PLC
de-energizes the switches sequentially.
This means that the output devices are changed to their shut ‑down
positions
It takes time for some processes to stop working, therefore, time
delays are built into the system where necessary
 How a PLC Works

Notes:

Shut‑down systems are energized when they are working normally

When a shutdown system is de‑energized it shuts down the

process

It is not "safe" to make a system energize for shut-down

An equipment fault or supply problem would not shut the plant

down if there was an emergency because there would be no
electrical power to operate the shutdown system
 Introduction to Process Control

No matter how simple or how complex a process, the basics of the

Process Control System is the same

To control a process we must:

– COLLECT information about it
– COMPARE that information with the desired result
– CORRECT the process as needed in order to achieve the
desired result
 Introduction to Process Control
Information is collected about the process by measuring one or
more of the four Process Variables:
Temperature
Pressure
Level
Flow

The value we want for these variables is called the "set-point

value”

If the liquid in a tank must be 3 metres deep then the set-point

value for "level" is 3 metres

If the pressure in a process vessel must be 50 psi, then the set-

point value for “pressure" is 50 psi

If the flow rate through a pipeline must be 100 gallons/min, then the
set-point value for “flow" is 100 gallons/min
 Process Control Elements

A typical controlled process system consists of a:

Measuring Element
Control Element
Final Control Element

Adjustment may be intermittent, as in the case of an on/off switch,

or continuous as in the case of a throttling valve, which
regulates the flow of a fluid

When flow is to be controlled, the Final Control Element, usually

a valve, is adjusted to return the flow to the set point value
 Process Control Elements

MEASURING CONTROL FINAL CONTROL

ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT
 Measuring Element

The Measuring Element collects data (information) about the

process

The Measuring Element can be an instrument or another

measuring device that produces a signal which is sent to the
CONTROL ELEMENT
 Process Control Elements

Control Element (or Controller)

The function (job) of a Control Element is to keep the process

variable at the set point value

To do this it compares the measured value of the process variable,

to the set point value

If these values are different then the Control Element must take
action

The Control Element must make the variable return to the set
point value (Corrective Action)
 Process Control Elements

The set point value for the level of oil in a storage tank is 3 metres

If the level in the tank is too high, (e.g. 4 metres) the Control
Element closes the supply valve to stop liquid going into the
tank

When the level in the tank falls to the set value (e.g. 3 metres)
the Control Element will open the supply valve again
 Operation of a Control Element

Measuring Device, Set Point, Control Valve

To see how a Control Element works let us look at a simple block
diagram:

FINAL
MEASURING CONTROL
CONTROL
ELEMENT ELEMENT
ELEMENT

MEASURING
Measuring CONTROL
Control
DEVICE
Device VALVE
Valve

Set POINT
SET Point
VALUE
 Operation of a Control Element

The Control Element gets the signal from the Measuring

Element

The Control Element checks for any difference between the

measured process variable (MV) and the (SP) set point value
(desired value)

If there is a difference it sends an error signal to the

Final Control Element
 Final Control Element

The Final Control Element is the part in the process system that
operates to carry out the correction

An example of a Final Control Element is a

Flow Control Valve
 Final Control Element

The Final Control Element continues to correct the error until

the signal from the error detector is reduced to zero

A zero signal means that the measured variable is the same as

the set point

When there is no error the Control Element keeps Final Control

Element at a fixed position
 Final Control Element

Several types of Final Control Element are used in refinery

process control, for example: -

Valves that regulate the flow of fluids in pipelines

Guide Vanes that regulate the flow of gases and vapours in

turbines and compressors

Louvers that regulate the air flow through furnaces and air coolers

Mechanical or Electro-Magnetic Governors which control the

speed of rotating equipment

Switches that control process variables within minimum and

maximum limits or positions
 Final Control Element
In the oil / gas industries,
the Control Valve is the most important Final Control Element

Control Valves can be operated automatically by:

Hydraulics
Electrics
Pneumatics (Air)

Control Valves may also be manually controlled by means of a

Handwheel
 Final Control Element

Process Control System using a Valve as the Final Control Element

Final Control Element – Solenoid Valves

Process Control System using Pressure & Level

Control Valves as Final Control Elements
Final Control Element – Solenoid Valves
 Electro-Magnetic (Solenoid) Valves

The previous diagrams show a Solenoid Valve

With no electrical supply to the solenoid (de-energized) the

valve is kept closed by the spring

When the control unit sends electrical current to the solenoid

(energized) the magnetism produced in the solenoid pulls
the valve spindle up compressing the spring and opening
the valve
 Purposes of Final Control Elements

A number of valves in oil and gas production systems are power-

actuated from remote control stations and are either operated
continuously or intermittently for the following purposes:-

Continuous Process Control

Intermittent Process Control
Safety & Equipment Protection
Emergency Shut-Down Systems
 Purposes of Final Control Elements

In continuous process control operations valves are used to

control the following variables:-
Flow Rate
Pressure
Level
Temperature

Valves also control the speed of rotating equipment by regulating

steam or fuel supplies.

Louvers or vane assemblies are used to regulate the flow of

combustion air to furnaces and cooling air to air cooler
 Intermittent Process Control

Valves, together with timing devices, are used to regulate the flow
of fluids in one-off operations or cyclic processes

For example:
Automatically controlled ‘on-off’ sequential control valves to start
operations in gas dehydration processes
Flow control valves for periodic fuel transfer operations
 Purposes of Final Control Elements

The
arrangement
of valves
used for
controlling
a typical gas
dehydration
cyclic
process
 Safety & Equipment Protection

Purposes of Final Control Elements

Valves are also used in the event of process malfunctions to

ensure that sufficient flow of fluid is maintained through pumps
and compressors to prevent damage by over-heating or surge

Pumps are protected by valves in spillback lines that

automatically open to maintain a minimum safe rate of flow
through the pumps

Compressors are protected from surge conditions by valves in

recycle lines that automatically open when the rate of flow
through the compressor is reduced to the danger level
 Emergency Shut-Down Systems

In the event of a serious fire or hydrocarbon leak needing the

emergency shutdown of a process or associated systems, a
number of remotely operated with high integrity actuators are
fitted:
Quick Release Isolation Valves
Emergency Shut-Down Valves

Vent Valves
 Emergency Shut-Down Systems

Quick Release Isolation Valves

Purpose: - Isolation and release of a tanker from marine loading

arms:

Fast closing isolation valves are sometimes installed at the ends of

the loading arms to permit a quick release coupling to be
broken, separating the tanker from the loading lines
 Emergency Shut-Down Systems

Emergency Shut-Down Valves

Purpose:- Isolation of process units, pipelines and tanks

Emergency Shutdown (ESD) valves are installed which are

closed in an emergency to isolate leaking equipment,
pipelines and large volumes of flammable liquids
 Emergency Shut-Down Systems

Vent Valves

Purpose:- Depressurization of equipment

Valves are provided to vent high-pressure gas to the flare

 Sampling

We collect information about a process system by measuring the 4

process variables

Process Controllers are used to keep the process variables at the

set point values

There is another method used to collect information – by taking

samples of fluid at different points in the process stream
(Sampling)
 Sampling

Why are Samples necessary?

Samples are used to check the Composition and Quality of the

refinery products at different points during the process
operations
 What is Sampling?

Sampling involves taking small amounts of fluid (usually liquid)

from a process stream

These Samples are sent to the Refinery Laboratory.

Laboratory Technicians analyze (check) the Sample

The laboratory sends a report to the process operations supervisor

Adjustments are made to the process operations to maintain

product composition / quality at the Set Point Value
 Sampling

How does the Laboratory check the samples?

The Refinery Laboratory analyses (checks) the composition of a

process stream by scientific techniques such as:
Gas Chromatography
Infrared / Ultraviolet Absorption

In some cases, satisfactory results can be obtained with an

analysis every few hours

In other cases, the process conditions can change quickly and

samples must be taken every few minutes
 Sampling

Modern process plants use electronics to sample product quality

Electronic Sampling uses sensors such as property analyzers

(densitometers, octane analyzers, etc)

The Electronic Sensors change physical measurements into

electrical signals that can be sent to the Process Controllers
Basic Electrical Process Control Loop Elements

CONTROLLER
ELEMENT

FINAL
MEASURING CONTROL
ELEMENT ELEMENT

SENSING
ELEMENT
Simple Control Loops - Final Control Element

The Final Control Element is the device that receives the

correction signal from the Controlling Element

The Final Control Element the command sent by the Controlling

Element and moves to adjust the process variable
Examples:
Needle Valve
Pressure Control Valve
 Open Loop Control
Open Loop Control means that changes in the process
variable do not affect the controlled output
Closed Loop Control with Feedback Loop added
 Open Loop Vs Closed Loop

The following diagrams show the same process with both Open
Loop and Closed Loop control systems

The objective is to maintain a set level in the tank (the Set Point
Value)

The Controlled Variable is the Level of liquid in the tank

The Adjusted Variable is the flow rate out of the tank

The Final Control Element is a hand-operated valve in the open

loop and a pneumatically operated valve in the closed loop
Open Loop Vs Closed Loop

Open Loop Process Control System

 Open Loop Vs Closed Loop

Open Loop

Operating in the Open Loop mode in cannot sense or correct

changes in the level of the liquid

An operator must monitor the level and adjust the valve

continuously to maintain the desired level in the tank

This is a time consuming task and is not very accurate

Open Loop Vs Closed Loop

Closed Loop Process Control System

 Open Loop Vs Closed Loop

In the Closed Loop System, a Level Transmitter (LT) sends a

signal equal to the level in the tank to the Controller

The Controller compares this signal (Actual Value) to the Set

Point Value

The Controller calculates the Deviation and sends a signal to the

Flow Control Valve (Final Control Element), adjusting the
valve until the loop reaches Steady State

Because the Closed Loop System is automatic, it doesn’t need

constant attendance of an Operator
 Flash Card

What does the Sensing element do in a process

control system ?
 Flash Card

What does the Sensing element do in a process

control system ?

It detects the required process variable

 Flash Card

Give an example of a Sensing Element:

 Flash Card

Give an example of a Sensing element:

Thermocouple
Orifice Plate
Float Switch
 Flash Card

What two actions does the Controller element

carry out in a Process Control System ?
 Flash Card

What two actions does the Controller element

carry out in a Process Control System ?

1. It compares the Actual process variable measurement

with the Set Value

2. It calculates (computes) the size of the electrical signal

to be sent to the Final Control Element to bring the
actual process variable value back to the Set Value
 Flash Card

What type of input / output data transfer signal values are

the most common in:

(A) Sensor elements?

(B) Computer chips?
 Flash Card

What type of input / output data transfer signal values are

the most common in:

(A) Sensor elements?

(B) Computer chips?

A. Analogue values
B. Digital Pulses & Binary On/Off values
 Flash Card

What is the difference between Manual Control and

Automatic Control ?
 Flash Card

What is the difference between Manual Control and

Automatic Control ?

1. Manual control requires an Operator to manually

adjust a Hand Valve to control a process.

2. Automatic Control continuously adjusts the Final

Control element without the need for an Operator by
using instruments and mechanical devices
 Flash Card

PID Controllers, what does ‘PID’ stand for ?

What are they designed for?

 Flash Card

PID Controllers, what does ‘PID’ stand for ?

Proportional, Integral, Derivative

What are they designed for?

PID Controllers are designed to prevent the need for

continuous operator attention
 Flash Card
What type of Control System does the diagram show?

Inflow

Level
Outflow

Manual Valve
 Flash Card
What type of Control System does the diagram show?
An Open Loop Level Control System

Inflow

Level
Outflow

Manual Valve
 Flash Card

What type of Control System does the diagram show?

Inflow
Level Set Point
MV Signal Adjustment
Controller

Controlling
Signal

Level
Outflow
LT

Level Control Valve

Transmitter
 Flash Card
What type of Control System does the diagram show?
A Closed Loop Level Control System with a Transmitter in the
Feedback loop

Inflow
Level Set Point
MV Signal Adjustment
Controller

Controlling
Signal

Level
Outflow
LT

Level Control Valve

Transmitter
 Flash Card

Why do we tune Controllers and name one tuning method?

 Flash Card

Why do we tune Controllers and name one tuning method?

To provide the optimum performance from a control system

This can be done by the following methods:

1. Using a computer model to determine initial values
2. Using the Automatic Tuning functions of the Controller
3. Manually testing the process control system
4. A combination of 1 and 3 methods
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What does a Controller do when it is set on Manual

Control?
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What does a Controller do when it is set Manual

Control?

With Controller set to ‘Manual’ the Set Point (SP)

adjustments directly control the percentage output of the
controller
The percentage output value and the MV are displayed
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Identify the following control system and give one

disadvantage of using it?

+24V
0V Level
Air Supply
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Identify the following control system and give one
disadvantage of using it?
On / Off Level Control
Disadvantages:
The average level lies
between the High Level
and Low Level switch
points i.e. It varies
between theses two limits
Constant cycling of the
SV, Control Valve and
Float Switch causes
wear and will limit its
+24V
useful life
0V LEVEL
Air Supply
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What does a Cascade Control Loop have that is not

present in a simple control loop?
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What does a Cascade Control Loop have that is not present in a

simple control loop?

A second measured variable (Flow) which is faster changing than the

primary measured variable (Level)

A second Controller for the Inner Control Loop

The use of the Remote Set-Point input on the Secondary

Controller
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How does an Operator control a process plants with a

Distributed Control System (DCS) ?
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How does an Operator control process plants with a

Distributed Control System (DCS) ?

By using of a computer in the CCR to adjust the set-points of

the various control loops
The computer then sends the information to the Local
Control Units via the Data Highway
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What is the function of a PLC and state an application for it ?

The basic job of a PLC is to

 Flash Card

What is the function of a PLC and state an application for it ?

The basic job of a PLC is to control a sequence of actions

Typical applications include:

Emergency Shut-Down Procedures
Fire Alarm Systems
Gas Detection Systems
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Name the 4 Process Variables

Pressure
Level
Temperature
Flow
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What is the value we want for these variables called?

The Set Point

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Name the 3 elements a typical Control Process System consists

of

Measuring Element
Control Element
Final Control Element
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Which element Collects information?

Measuring Element
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Which element Compares information?

Control Element
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What is the function of a Control Element?

The Control Element checks for any difference between the

measured process variable (MV) & the set point value (DV)
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Give three examples of Final Control Elements

Control Valves
Guide Vanes
Louvre's
Mechanical or Electro-magnetic governors
Switches
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What happens when there is no error?

The Final Control element remains in a fixed position because

there is no error
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Control valves can be operated automatically in which 3 ways?

Pneumatics
Electrics
Hydraulics
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Final Control Elements are used for which 4 purposes?

1. Continuous Process Control

2. Intermittent Process Control
3. Safety & Equipment Protection
4. Emergency Shut-Down Systems
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Give an example of Continuous Process Control

In Continuous Process Control operations, valves are used to

control the following variables: -
Flow Rate
Pressure
Level
Temperature
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In case of a malfunction, what are pumps protected by?

Pumps are protected by valves in spillback lines that

automatically open to maintain a minimum safe rate of flow
through the pumps
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Name 3 valve types used in Emergency Shut-Down Systems?

Quick Release Isolation Valves

Emergency Shut-Down Valve
Vent Valves
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What does ESD mean?

Emergency Shut-Down
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What is the purpose of a vent valve?

To depressurize equipment
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Why do we take Samples?

Samples are used to check the Composition and Quality of the

refinery products at different points during the process
operations
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What is Sampling?

Sampling involves taking small amounts of fluid (usually liquid)

from a process stream
These Samples are sent to the Refinery Laboratory
Laboratory Technicians analyze (check) the Sample
The laboratory sends a report to the process operations supervisor
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Name the 4 elements that make-up a Simple Control Loop

Sensing Element
Measuring Element
Controller Element
Final Control Element
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Give two examples of a Sensing Element

Orifice Plate
Float Switch
Thermocouple
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What does the Measuring Element measure?

It Measures the process variable

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What are Input & Output signals?

Input and Output signals are electronic messages sent from one
device to another in a control loop
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What is the movement of signals called?

Data Transfer
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Name 3 types of signals

Binary
Analogue
Digital
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Which signal gives a continuous reading without a break?

Analogue signals
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In an Automatic Control Loop, what is the Control Element

called?

PID Controller
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What does DCS stand for?

Distributive Control System

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What does PLC stand for?

Programmable Logic Controller

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Identify the DCS elements shown

GAS
FRACTIONATION
COLUMN UNIT
(PROCESS)
LOCAL DATA HIGHWAYS
CONTROL
UNIT
GAS STEAM
COMPRESSION GENERATION
UNIT UNIT
LOCAL LOCAL
CONTROL CONTROL
UNIT UNIT

CENTRAL
CONTROL
ROOM
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Sensing Element

Complete the drawing below by writing the elements of a control

loop in the boxes. Draw arrows to indicate flow path.

SENSING MEASURING CONTROLER FINAL

ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT CONTROL
ELEMENT
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What two actions does the Controller element carry out in a

Process Control System?

1. It compares the Actual process variable measurement with the

Set Value

2. It calculates (computes) the size of the electrical signal to be

sent to the Final Control Element to bring the actual process
variable value back to the set value
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When the Set Point Value is equal to the Actual Value (Measured
Value) what is the Deviation (error) value?

Zero
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What is the difference between Manual Control and Automatic

Control?

Manual control requires an Operator to manually adjust a Hand

Valve to control a process

Automatic Control continuously adjusts the Final Control

element without the need for an Operator by using instruments
and mechanical devices
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Identify the type of Control Loop shown

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Name the four elements

CONTROLLER
ELEMENT

FINAL
SENSING CONTROL
ELEMENT ELEMENT

MEASURING
ELEMENT
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What type of Control System does the diagram show?

A Closed Loop
Level Control
System with a
Transmitter in the
Feedback loop
 Flash Card

What is the function of a PLC and state an application for it?

The basic job of a PLC is to control a sequence of actions

Typical applications include:

Emergency Shut-Down Procedures
Fire Alarm Systems
Gas Detection Systems
 Flash Card

Name the 4 PROCESS VARIABLES.

PRESSURE, LEVEL, TEMPERATURE, FLOW

What is the value we want for these variables called?

THE SET POINT

Name the 3 elements a typical CONTROL PROCESS SYSTEM
consists of.

MEASURING ELEMENT; CONTROL ELEMENT; FINAL CONTROL

ELEMENT
Which element COLLECTS information?

MEASURING ELEMENT
Which element COMPARES information?

CONTROL ELEMENT
Which element CORRECTS the process variable?

FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT

• What is the function of a CONTROL
ELEMENT?
• The CONTROL ELEMENT checks for any
difference between the measured process
variable (measured value) and the set point
value (desired value).
• Give three examples of FINAL CONTROL
ELEMENTS.
• Any three from:
• Control Valves
• Guide Vanes
• Louvre's
• Mechanical or Electro-magnetic governors
• Switches
What happens when there is no error?

The FINAL CONTROL element remains in a

fixed position because there is no error
• Control valves can be operated
automatically in which 3 ways?

• Pneumatics
• Electrics
• Hydraulics
• FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS are used for
which 4 purposes?

• 1. CONTINUOUS PROCESS CONTROL

• 2. INTERMITTENT PROCESS CONTROL
• 3. SAFETY & EQUIPMENT PROTECTION
• 4. EMERGENCY SHUT-DOWN SYSTEMS
• Give an example of CONTINUOUS PROCESS
CONTROL

• In continuous process control operations, valves

are used to control the following variables:-
• FLOW RATE
• PRESSURE
• LEVEL
• TEMPERATURE
Give an example of INTERMITTENT PROCESS CONTROL.

Automatically controlled ‘on-off’ sequential control valves to start

operations in gas dehydration processes.
Flow control valves for periodic fuel transfer operations.
In case of a malfunction, what are pumps
protected by?

Pumps are protected by valves in spillback

lines which automatically open to maintain
a minimum safe rate of flow through the
pumps
Name 3 types of valves used in
EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN SYSTEMS.

QUICK RELEASE ISOLATION VALVES

EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN VALVE
VENT VALVES
What does ESD mean?

EMERGENCY SHUT DOWN

What is the purpose of a vent valve?

Depressurization of equipment
 Why do we take SAMPLES?

SAMPLES are used to check the COMPOSITION and QUALITY of

the refinery products at different points during the process
operations
 What is SAMPLING?

SAMPLING involves taking small amounts of fluid (usually liquid)

from a process stream. These SAMPLES are sent to the
Refinery Laboratory. Laboratory Technicians analyse (check)
the SAMPLE. The laboratory sends a report to the process
operations supervisor
Name the 4 elements that make-up a SIMPLE CONTROL LOOP

SENSING ELEMENT
MEASURING ELEMENT
CONTROLLER ELEMENT
FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT
 Give two examples of a SENSING ELEMENT

Orifice Plate
Float Switch
Thermocouple
What does the MEASURING ELEMENT
measure?

It MEASURES the process variable

What are INPUT & OUTPUT signals?

INPUT and OUTPUT signals are electronic

messages sent from one device to another in
a control loop
• What is the movement of signals called?

Data Transfer
 Name 3 types of signals

BINARY; ANALOG; DIGITAL

Which signal gives a continuous reading
without a break?

ANALOG signals
In an AUTOMATIC CONTROL LOOP, what
is the CONTROL ELEMENT called?

PID Controller
What does PID stand for?

PROPORTIONAL; INTEGRAL;
DERIVATIVE
What does DCS stand for?

DISTRIBUTIVE CONTROL SYSTEM

What does PLC stand for?

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

 GAS
FRACTIONATION
COLUMN UNIT
(PROCESS)
LOCAL DATA HIGHWAYS
CONTROL
UNIT
GAS STEAM
COMPRESSION GENERATION
UNIT UNIT
LOCAL LOCAL
CONTROL CONTROL
UNIT UNIT

CENTRAL
CONTROL
ROOM

Identify the elements of a simple DCS diagram marked with a ‘?’

 SENSING ELEMENT
Complete the drawing below by writing the elements of a control
loop in the boxes. Draw arrows to indicate flow path.

SENSING MEASURING CONTROLER FINAL

ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT CONTROL
ELEMENT
What two actions does the Controller element carry out in a
Process Control System?

1. It compares the ACTUAL process variable measurement with

the SET VALUE
2. It then calculates (computes) the size of the electrical signal to
be sent to the FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT to bring the actual
process variable value back to the set value
When the Set Point Value is equal to the
Actual Value (Measured Value) what is the
Deviation (error) value?

ZERO
 What is the difference between Manual Control and Automatic
Control ?

Manual control requires an Operator to manually adjust a Hand

Valve to control a process
Automatic Control continuously adjusts the Final Control element
without the need for an Operator by using instruments and
mechanical devices
Circle and Name the Control Loops
 .m

Identify the type of Control Loop shown in the following diagram = OPEN
 CONTROLLER
ELEMENT

FINAL
SENSING CONTROL
ELEMENT ELEMENT

MEASURING
ELEMENT
What type of Control System does the diagram show?
A Closed Loop Level control System with a Transmitter in the Feedback loop
 Flash Card

What is the function of a PLC and state an application for it ?

The basic job of a PLC is to control a sequence of actions

Typical applications include:

EMERGENCY SHUT – DOWN PROCEDURES
FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS
GAS DETECTION SYSTEMS