COMPUTER AND ITS BASIC OPERATION

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
 Computers are classified on the basis of
 Size
 Speed
 Processing Power
 Price
COMPUTERS CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THE
FOLLOWING CATEGORIES
 Microcomputer or Personal Computer
 Minicomputer
 Mainframe Computer
 Supercomputer
 Embedded Computer
MICROCOMPUTERS
 Microcomputer is also called personal computers.
 It was introduced in 1970.
 It is designed to be used by one person at a time.
 It consists of a processor, memory and one or more input,
output and storage devices.
 It also often contains a communication device.
 The price of personal computer is from several hundreds to
several thousand dollars.
 Most commonly used personal computers are PC and Apple.
 The major types of personal computers are desktop &
portable computer.
MINICOMPUTERS
 Minicomputer is larger and more powerful than PC.
 It was introduced in 1960s.
 It generally consists of two or processors.
 It is more reliable than desktop computer.
 Minicomputers are also called mid-range servers.
 It is more costly than micro computers.
 Minicomputer can serve up to several hundreds connected computers
simultaneously.
 It is normally accessed by users through PC or terminal.
 It is also called dumb terminal.
 It has no processing power and cannot work as stand-alone computer.
 It has to be connected to a server.
 E.g. Prime 9955, HP 3000, AS 400, VAX 8600.
USE OF MINICOMPUTERS
 Minicomputers are often used by small and
medium-sized companies or departments.
 They provide centralized store of
information and computer programs.
MAINFRAME COMPUTERS
 A mainframe computer is a large computer in terms of price, power and speed.
 It was introduced in 1975.
 It is more powerful than mini computer.
 It consists of multiple processor.
 It is specially designed to perform multiple tasks for multiple users simultaneously.
 It is designed for high reliability.
 It often runs twenty four hours a day.
 It can be serviced and upgraded while it is running.
 It is also known as enterprise server or high-ended server.
 It can serve several thousand users simultaneously.
 These computers can store large amounts of data, information and programs.
 The users access a mainframe computer through a terminal or personal computer.
 The price of mainframe computer is several thousand dollars and can be up to several
million dollars.
 IBM, Sun and Unisys are leading manufacturers of mainframe computers
 E.g. IBM S-390, NEC 610, DEC 10, IBM System Z10.
SUPERCOMPUTERS
 Supercomputer is the fastest and the most powerful computer.
 It is the biggest in size and the most expensive n price than any
other computer.
 It was first developed in early 1970s.
 It is used to perform complex tasks.
 It has a very large storage capacity and can store several thousand
times more data than an average desktop computer.
 It also consumes so much energy.
 It can process trillions of instructions in one second.
 The modern supercomputer consists of thousands of
microprocessors.
 The cost of one super computer can be up to several billion dollars.
 E.g. Roadrunner, Blue Gene, Deep Blue, ASCI White.
USES OF SUPERCOMPUTERS
 Supercomputer is mostly used for weather Predictions,
weapon design and atomic research etc.
 Supercomputer is also used in business and industry field.
 Aircraft manufacturers use it to simulate aircraft and check
its performance.
 Governments use super computer for different calculations
and heavy jobs.
 Many Hollywood movies use it for animation purposes.
HARDWARE
 The physical parts of the computer are called
hardware.
 The user can see and touch the hardware.
 SOFTWARE
 A set of instructions given to the computer to solve a problem is called
software.
 Software is also called program.
 Different software are used to solve different problems.
 A computer works according to the instructions written in software.
 Software is logical part of a computer.
 Software cannot be touched.
 The hardware cannot perform any task without software.
 Software is usually stored on hard disk or CDs.
 It is loaded from the disk to RAM as and when required.
TYPES OF SOFTWARE
 The computer software are broadly divided
into two categories.
 System software
 Application software
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
 System software is a type of computer
program that is designed to run a computer's
hardware and application programs.
 If we think of the computer system as a
layered model, the system software is the
interface between the hardware and user
applications.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
 Applications software (also called end-user
programs) include such things as database
programs, word processors, Web browsers
and spreadsheets.
TYPES OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE
 Systems software includes the programs that
are dedicated to managing
the computer itself, such as the operating
system, file management, utilities, Device
Driver and disk operating system(or DOS).
OPERATING SYSTEM
 An operating system (OS)
is system software that manages computer
hardware and software resources and
provides common services for computer
programs. All computer programs,
excluding firmware, require an operating
system to function.
DEVICE DRIVER
 A device driver is a program that controls a
particular type of device that is attached to
your computer. There are device drivers for
printers, displays, CD-ROM readers, diskette
drives, and so on. When you buy an
operating system, many device drivers are
built into the product.
UTILITY SOFTWARE
 Utility software is system software designed
to help analyze, configure, optimize or
maintain a computer. It is used to support
the computer infrastructure in contrast to
application software, which is aimed at
directly performing tasks that benefit
ordinary users.
LANGUAGE PROCESSOR
 A language processor is a software program
designed or used to perform tasks, such as
processing program code to machine
code. Language processors are found
in languages such as Fortran and COBOL
INTERPRETER
 In computer science, an interpreter is a
computer program that directly executes, i.e.
performs, instructions written in a
programming or scripting language, without
previously compiling them into a machine
language program.
COMPILER
 A compiler is computer software that
transforms computer code written in one
programming language (the source
language) into another computer language
(the target language). Compilers are a type
of translator that support digital devices,
primarily computers.
ASSEMBLER
 An assembler is a program that takes basic
computer instructions and converts them
into a pattern of bits that the computer's
processor can use to perform its basic
operations. Some people call these
instructions assembler language and others
use the term assembly language.
TYPES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE
 General Purpose Application Software.
 Special Purpose Application Software.
GENERAL-PURPOSE APPLICATION SOFTWARE

 General-purpose application software is

software used to perform a broad variety of
tasks and is useful to nearly all computer
users, such as word processing, graphics
editing and spreadsheet applications. In
contrast, other types of software applications are
used to perform specific tasks, such as
accounting or contact management, or they are
used in a particular industry, such as stock
trading or library management.
SPECIAL PURPOSE APPLICATION SOFTWARE

 Special purpose application software is a

type of software created to execute one
specific task. For example a
camera application on your phone will only
allow you to take and share pictures.
Another example would be a chess game, it
would only allow you to play chess.
Chromium web browser.
SOFTWARE TERMINOLOGIES
 Licensed or Proprietary Software.
 Open Source Software.
 Shareware.
 Freeware.
LICENSED OR PROPRIETARY SOFTWARE.

 Typically, you are not allowed to modify or distribute

the software. Some propriety software is commercial,
and you have to pay for a license, but
other proprietary software is free. Free and open-
source software is software that is freely distributed
and for which the source code is released (allow).
 Proprietary software is software that is owned by an
individual or a company (usually the one that
developed it). There are almost always major
restrictions on its use, and its source code is almost
always kept secret.
OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE.

 Open-source software (OSS) is

computer software with its source code
made available with a license in which the
copyright holder provides the rights to
study, change, and distribute the software to
anyone and for any purpose.
SHAREWARE
 Shareware is software that is distributed free
on a trial basis with the understanding that
the user may need or want to pay for it later.
Some software developers offer a shareware
version of their program with a built-in
expiration date (after 30 days, the user can
no longer get access to the program).
FREEWARE
 Free software is a matter of liberty, not price:
users, individually or collectively, are free to
do what they want with it, including the
freedom to redistribute the software free of
charge, or to sell it, or charge for related
services such as support or warranty for
profit.
FIRMWARE
 It is a term often used for the fixed, small
programs embedded in hardware that
control various electronic devices.
 These programs are written in the hardware
for which it is developed.
 Examples of devices containing firmware are
ROM, mobile phones, Digital cameras, Toys.
COMPUTER HARDWARE
 Hardware are the physical components that
make up a computer system.
 They include all electrical and mechanical
devices attached to the computer for the
purpose of input, process, storage and
output operations.
HARDWARE COMPONENTS
 Input devices
 Output devices
 CPU
 Memory
INPUT DEVICES
 In computing, an input device is a peripheral
(piece of computer hardware equipment)
used to provide data. Examples of input
devices include keyboards, mouse, scanners,
digital cameras and joysticks.
KEYBOARD
 A computer keyboard is an input device that
allows a person to enter letters, numbers,
and other symbols (these are called
characters) into a computer. It is one of the
most used input devices for computers. ...
A keyboard contains many mechanical
switches or push-buttons called "keys".
POINTING DEVICES
 An input device used to move the pointer
(cursor) on screen. The major pointing
device is the mouse for the
desktop computer and the touchpad for the
laptop
MOUSE
 Mouse is a pointing device.
 It controls the pointer on the screen.
 The user gives instructions to the computer
through mouse.
 It contains different buttons.
MICROPHONE
 It is used to enter voice into the computer.
SCANNER
 It reads printed text and graphics and then
translates the result into digital form.
DIGITAL CAMERA
 It is used to take photos.
 It does not use traditional camera film.
MAGNETIC STRIPE CARD
 Magnetic stripes are built into many plastic cards such as
credit cards.
 The strip can contain up to 60 characters (numbers or digits)
of information which is stored magnetically.
 Usually the information is put onto the strip when the card is
made and is never changed.
 To read the card it is swiped through a magnetic stripe
reader, which quickly and accurately reads the pattern of
magnetism.
 The information stored on the card can be destroyed by
exposure to magnetic fields, by scratching or by coming into
contact with some liquids.
SMART CARD
 A smart card contains a small RAM chip.
 When the card is put into a smart card reader data
can be read from the card or written onto it.
 A smart card can store much more data than a
magnetic stripe.
 It is more secure than magnetic stripes though
more expensive to produce.
 A new generation of smart cards is now appearing
which contain a small microprocessor as well as
memory.
PC CAMERA
 PC camera is used to create movie and take
photos on the computer.
 It is also used to make a video phone call
OUTPUT DEVICES
 The data processed into useful information is
called output.
 A hardware component used to display
information to the user is called output
device.
 Most commonly used output devices are
monitor, printer and speaker.
TYPES OF OUTPUT DEVICES
 Softcopy output
 Hardcopy output
SOFTCOPY OUTPUT
 It is the output that is temporary and is
erased when the computer is switched off,
e.g. display on the computer screen.
HARDCOPY OUTPUT
 It is the output that is permanent and is
always available for use. E.g. print out on
paper.
MONITOR
 It is used to display text, graphics and video
on screen.
 It is also called a visual display unit.
 The output produced by monitors is called
softcopy output.
 There are different types and sizes of
monitors, each can be distinguished on the
basis of the following features:
MONITORS FEATURES
 Size:
 The size of the monitor is measured diagonally.
 Standard size is 15 to 19 inches.
 Color:
 The monitor can be either monochrome (one color) or color monitor.
 Resolution:
 The number of pixels (or dots) per square inch is called resolution.
 Refresh Rate:
 It is the speed with which the monitor redraws he screen in per unit time.
 Dot Pitch:
 The distance between the pixels on the monitor is called dot pitch.
 The lesser dot pitch monitors have sharp images.
 CRT (cathode ray tube) and LCD (Liquid Crystal Display are the two
common) types of monitors.
CATHODE RAY TUBES (CRT) MONITORS
 CRT monitors are similar to the standard television sets because they
contain cathode Ray Tube.
 The cathode Ray Tube is a vacuum tube containing an electron gun and
a phosphors coated screen.
 The electron gun, fires a beam of electrons which falls repeatedly on the
phosphors coated screen and it glows for a fraction of a second.
 In color CRT monitors there are three electron guns while the phosphors
atoms are in three different colors i.e. Red, Green, Blue (RGB).
 Other colors are produced by the combinations of these three colors.
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD) MONITORS

 LCD is a thin and light weight monitor.

 It contains a substance called liquid crystal between two
sheets.
 The molecules of this substance are lined up in such a
way that the light behind the screen is blocked or allowed
to create an image on the screen.
 LCD provide a sharper image than CRT monitors and
emit less radiation.
 They are used in a wide range of applications, including
computer monitors, portable, less expensive, more
reliable and easier on the eyes than CRT monitors.
PRINTER
 Printer is used to produce text and graphics
on paper.
SPEAKER
 Speaker is used to hear sound, music and
voice.
COMPUTER MEMORY
 Computer memory is one of the important and compulsory
components of every computer system.
 It is the electronic holding place for instructions and data or
programs on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a
computer.
 Memory is sometimes distinguished from storage, or the
physical medium that holds the much larger amounts of
data for later use.
TYPES OF MEMORY
 It is divided into two main types.
 Primary or main or internal Memory
 Secondary or Auxiliary or Backing Storage Memory.
MEMORY

Memory

Primary Secondary
Memory Memory

RAM

DRAM,
SRAM
 RAM
(RAMDOM ACCESS MEMORY)
 RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is a
temporary memory. In RAM, data or instructions
cannot be stored permanently. When the
computer is turned on, it uses RAM to Write or
Read data and programs. When the computer is
turned off, all the programs and data are erased
from the RAM. RAM is, therefore, also known as
volatile memory. It is like a chalkboard on which
information is written, read, cleared and
rewritten. RAM is further classified into:
 TYPES OF RAM
 DRAM(DYNAMIC RAM)
 SRAM(STATIC RAM)
 DRAM
 DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. Like a RAM
chip, a DRAM chip stores data in the form of electric charge or in
the form of electronic switches having ON/OFF states.
 In a DRAM chip, the charge tends to decrease with time.
This result in the loss of data in the DRAM. In order to maintain
data in the DRAM chip, the chip is recharged or refreshed
frequently. To recharge a DRAM, a small amount of electrical
energy is used.
 During the refreshing process, the processor of the computer
cannot read or write data in the DRAM. The recharging process of
the DRAM decreases the processing speed of the computer. This
type of memory was used in old microcomputers.
THE MAIN TWO TYPES OF DRAM
 SDRAM
 DDR SDRAM
SDRAM
 SDRAM stand for synchronous dynamic random
access memory.
 SDRAM is a high speed semiconductor memory.
 It is an improved form of the older DRAM.
 SDRAM operates synchronously, which means
that it operates in sync with the system data bus.
 It can operate at much greater speeds than non-
synchronous RAM
DDR SDRAM
 It is an improved SDRAM which allows a
computer to transfer data at twice the speed.
 It has improved SDRAM which allows a
computer to transfer data at twice the speed.
 It has improved memory clock speed as
compared to simple SDRAM.
 It reads or writes two consecutive words per
clock cycle
PHYSICAL DIFFERENCE
TECHNICAL DIFFERENCE
 SRAM
 SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. The
SRAM chip requires more power as compared to the
DRAM does not need to recharged frequently. The
computer processor does not have to wait to store data
or to read data from the SRAM chip during processing.
The SRAM is faster as compared to DRAM.
 In large computers and also in fast microcomputers,
the SRAM is used. The SRAM chip increases the
processing speed of the computer. It is about 10 times
faster than the DRAM. It is also more expensive.
 READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)
 ROM stands for Read Only Memory. In this type of memory instructions are stored
permanently. The instructions written in this memory can only be read but cannot
be changed or deleted. It is not possible to write new information or instruction into
the ROM. This is the reason why it is called Read Only Memory. When the power is
turned off, the instructions stored in ROM are not lost. The ROM is, therefore, also
called nonvolatile memory.
 The instructions are written into the ROM chips at the time of manufacturing.
These instructions become permanent inside the ROM. When the computer is
switched on, the instructions in the ROM are automatically loaded into the memory
of the computer. The processors take actions on these instructions. The main
functions of these instructions are:
 To check different units of computer system during booting process.
 To load the operating system into the computer memory.
 The instructions that carry out these functions are stored in the ROM of the
computer and ate also called micro-programs. Micro-programs are also known as
the Firmware. The micro-programs or instructions in the ROM cannot be modified by
the users.
 TYPES OF ROM
 Different types of Read Only Memories are
used in computer system. These are:
 PROM (Programmable ROM)
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable
Programmable ROM)
 PROM
 PROM stands for Programmable Read Only
Memory. In PROM, the users can write his own
instruction but only once. However, once a
program has been stored in the PROM chip, it
cannot be changed or erased I.e. the PROM
becomes a ROM. PROM is also a nonvolatile
memory.
 If there is an error in writing the instructions
into a PROM, the error cannot be removed and
the PROM becomes unusable.
 EPROM
 EPROM stands for Erasable Programming Read Only
memory. A computer user can erase instructions or
data stored in the EPROM by exposing it into
ultraviolet light and new programs can also be written
into the chip. If there is an error in writing the
instructions /data into the EPROM, the user can erase
the previous contents from the EPROM and can write
new instructions.
 When an EPROM is in used, the instructions
stored in EPROM can only be read and remain
permanent in this chip unless erased.
 EEPROM
 EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable
Programming Read Only Memory. In this
memory, instructions can be erased and
written with the help of electrical pulses.
 In EEPROM a computer user can write
instructions or data inside the EEPROM with
special electrical pulses. If there is an error in
writing the instructions, the user can erase
the contents electrically.
 CACHE MEMORY:

 A special type of buffer memory used in

advanced computers and also in some
microcomputers is CACHE MEMORY. It is a
high speed memory. It is located between the
processor and the main memory. It is used to
increase the accessing speed of data between
the processor and main memory. Cache
memory is also called high speed buffer. It is
expensive and is used in small size. It is also a
volatile memory.
 CMOS:

 CMOS stands for Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. The

CMOS is a special memory that requires a very small power to maintain
information stored in it.
 In CMOS, the basic information about the computer is stored. The
information stored in the CMOS includes memories and their sizes, the
input/output devises, system times and dates, system configuration etc.
The password of the system can also be stored in the CMOS.
 The information stored in the CMOS can be modified if a new I/O devise
is installed, system date and time is changed or system configuration is
altered.
 The features of the CMOS chip are the same as that of the RAM chip, but
to keep information permanently in the CMOS, a small battery is attached
to the chip. When the computer is turned on, the information stored in the
CMOS is located into the main memory and the operating system works
according to the system configurations stored in the CMOS.
 VIRTUAL MEMORY
 Virtual memory is a temporary memory. If the main memory
is used by the operating system and the application programs,
the computer cannot process data. The processor of the
computer stops its operations. A virtual memory manager
(system software) then temporarily stores some of the data
held in the main memory in a file on the disk. It frees some of
the main memory of the computer.
 Virtual memory is a part of the external storage and is
much slower than the RAM.
 Window is the best known application program that uses
the virtual memory. The temporary swap files with extension
TMP serves as temporary storage or virtual memory.
 REGISTERS
 A register is a special purpose high speed memory. It is usually small
in size and is a part of the CPU. It is used for the following purposes:
 temporary storage of memory addresses,
 temporary storage of instructions during the executions of the program.
 Temporary storage of data being worked upon by the CPU.
 The CPU contains a number of registers which have different
functions.
 Registers are not part of the main memory. They are the part of CPU
and can hold one piece of data at a time.
 The size of registers determines its capacity to hold the number of bits
at a time. A register that can store 8 bits is referred to as 8-bits register.
In more advanced computers, the size of the registers is 16-bits, 24-bit,
32-bit, 64-bit, 128-bit or more. The processing speed of the computer
also depends upon the size of registers.
MAIN TYPE OF REGISTERS USED IN THE COMPUTERS :

 Address Registers
 Buffer Register
 Instruction Register
 Program Control Register
 Accumulator Register
 Input/output Register
 Status Register
 Stack Pointer Register
ADDRESS REGISTER:

 The address register holds the address

of the memory location being used
when data or instructions are being
transferred to and from main
memory.
 A computer with 24-bit register can
hold about 10 million addresses of an
active memory at a time. The address
is a part of the Control Unit.
 It is also known as Memory Address
Register (MAR).
INSTRUCTION REGISTER:

 The instruction register is used to hold the

instruction which is currently being executed by the
Control Unit.
 All program instructions are fetched from the main
memory in a sequence and the instruction register
decodes them one by one and executes them.
 If the instruction is an arithmetic or logic
instruction, it is sent to the ALU where the
instruction is decoded and executed.
 The instruction register is a part of Control Unit.
PROGRAMS CONTROL/COUNTER REGISTER:

 This register keeps track of the program

instructions.
 It holds the address of the next instructions to
be executed by the processor.
 It counts the instructions in a sequence and
transfers address of each instruction one by one
to the instruction register.
 It is also called Sequence Control Register (SCR).
 It is a part of the Control Unit.
BUFFER REGISTER:

 The buffer register stores the contents of data

or instruction beings read from or written to
the memory.
 The contents of this register are then
transferred to the instruction register.
 The buffer register is a part of the Control
Unit.
 It is also known as Memory Buffer Register
(MBR).
INPUT/OUTPUT REGISTER:

 It is used to transfer data or programs from

the input unit to the main memory or from
the main memory to the output unit. The
programs and data are transferred to this
register with the help of an input device.
Similarly, the output reports are sent to the
output devise through this register. It is a
part of the Control Unit.
WORKING OF CONTROL UNIT:

 Control unit is the brain of computer. It decodes the instructions and executes them one by one. It also
coordinates and controls the working of the processor and all input/output units of the computer.
 Control Units works in the following sequence:
 When a computer program is loaded into the memory of the computer, each instructions of the
program is stored in the Address Register.
 Controls Unit reads the address of first instruction loaded in the main memory through the address
register. It fetches the instruction from the main memory through the Buffer Register and sends it to the
Instruction Register.
 The instruction register decodes the instruction and executes it by sending command signals to the
related units or circuits. If the instruction of the program is an arithmetic/logic instruction, it sends
command signals to the ALU to perform the operation.
 The Counter Register also called the program counter. Points to the instruction that is to be executed
next. It counts the instruction of the program that have been executed. The value in the counter register
increases by 1 after executing an instruction.
 In this ways all the instructions of the computer program are executed one by one.
 A Controls Unit also coordinates the functions of input/output device. It receives input from input
devices through input/output register and stores it into the memory. If an instruction is to get input
from an input unit during program execution, the control unit decodes the instruction and sends the
command signal to the input unit. Similarly, the control unit sends the command signal to an output
devise if the instruction wants to send the output to the output device.
ACCUMULATOR REGISTER:
 The accumulator register stores date values so that logical or
arithmetic operations can be carried out. It is part of ALU.
 Accumulator takes data values from RAM through MBR during
program execution. It also stores the results of the last processing
step. It returns the results of the last processing step back to the
MBR. The MBR then stores the results into the main memory.
 For example, if two numbers in locations X and Y are to be added
and the result stored in Z, following operations are carried out:


 Contents of location X are loaded into accumulator,

 Contents of location Y are added to the contents of accumulator,
 Contents of accumulator are stored in location Z.
WORKING OF ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT:

 ALU is a part of the Central Processing Unit (CPU). It performs arithmetic

and logic operations. It works under the direction of the CPU in the following
ways:
 The data value that is to be processed is loaded from the main memory into
the Accumulator via MBR. This step is called “loading” of data from main
memory into the Accumulator.
 The ALU then performs the arithmetic or logical operation on the data in the
Accumulator according to the given instruction. The results are stored in the
Accumulator.
 The output stored in the Accumulator is transferred to the main memory via
MBR. This step is called “storing” of data from Accumulator to main memory.
 If a logical operation is to be carried out, the CU sends data to the ALU via
MBR. The ALU compares the data and sends result back to the CU in
True/False form. The CU then executes next statements according to the
results returned by the ALU.
SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES
 Secondary storage commonly refers to
nonvolatile storage devices, such as hard
disk drives (HDDs).
 It is used for storing the data permanently.
 The capacity of these devices is very high. It
goes to terabytes.
SEQUENTIAL ACCESS AND DIRECT ACCESS STORAGE.

 Secondary storage can be divided into two

main categories.
 Sequential access Storage.
 Direct Access Storage.
SEQUENTIAL ACCESS STORAGE
 A storage technology that is read and written
in a serial (one after the other) fashion.
Magnetic tape is the common sequential
access storage device.
DIRECT ACCESS STORAGE

 In computer storage, direct access is the

ability to obtain data from a storage device
by going directly to where it is physically
located on the device rather than by having
to sequentially look for the data at one
physical location after another
MAGNETIC TAPES
 Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin,
magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film. It was
developed in Germany in 1928, based on magnetic wire recording.
Devices that record and play back audio and video using magnetic
tape are tape recorders and videotape recorders.
 A device that stores computer data on magnetic tape is a tape drive.
 It is slower than hard drives.
 It is cheaper than other storage devices and are more durable.
 These devices are usually used for taking backup of data.
 the major drawback of tape is its sequential format
HARD DISK
 A hard disk drive (HDD), hard disk, hard drive or fixed
disk[b] is a data storage device that uses magnetic storage
to store and retrieve digital information using one or
more rigid rapidly rotating disks (platters) coated with
magnetic material. The platters are paired with
magnetic heads, usually arranged on a moving actuator
arm, which read and write data to the platter surfaces. [2]
Data is accessed in a random-access manner, meaning
that individual blocks of data can be stored or retrieved in
any order and not only sequentially. HDDs are a type of
non-volatile storage, retaining stored data even when
powered off
FLOPPY DISK
 A floppy disk is a disk storage medium
composed of a disk of thin and flexible
magnetic storage medium encased in a
rectangular plastic carrier. It is read and
written using a floppy disk drive (FDD).
FLOPPY DISK
OPTICAL DISK
 An optical disc is an electronic data storage
medium that can be written to and read from
using a low-powered laser beam. Originally
developed in the late 1960s, the first optical
disc, created by James T. Russell, stored data
as micron-wide dots of light and dark.
 Compact disc (CD) is a digital
optical disc data storage format that was co-
developed by Philips and Sony and released
in 1982. The format was originally developed
to store and play only digital audio
recordings (CD-DA) but was later adapted
for storage of data (CD-ROM).
DVD(DIGITAL VERSATILE DISK)
 Digital Versatile Disc." A DVD is a type of
optical media used for storing digital data. It
is the same size as a CD, but has a larger
storage capacity. Some DVDs are formatted
specifically for video playback, while others
may contain different types of data, such as
software programs and computer files.
BLU-RAY DISK (BD)
 Blu-ray Disc (BD), often known simply
as Blu-ray, is a digital optical disc storage
format. It is designed to supersede the DVD
format, capable of storing several hours of
video in high-definition (HDTV 720p and
1080p).
CHIP MEMORY AS SECONDARY STORAGE

 Secondary storage deals with

permanent storage and is usually called
"storage". Most memory is referred to
storing media, documents...etc on chips,
whereas storage stores it on disks or
tapes. Memory (primary storage)
is stored on RAM chips or Random
Access Memory chips.
FLASH MEMORY
 Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip
used for storage and for transfering data
between a personal computer (PC) and
digital devices. It has the ability to be
electronically reprogrammed and erased. It
is often found in USB flash drives, MP3
players, digital cameras and solid-
state drives.
SYSTEM BUS
SYSEM BUS
SYSTEM BUS
SYSTEM BUS
DATA BUS
ADDRESS BUS
CONTROL BUS
INSTRUCTION AND THEIR TYPES
 An instruction (or instruction code) is a
group of bits that tells the computer to
perform a specific operation.
 Instruction are stored in main memory, to be
processed by the processor.
 An instruction has two fields
 Operation code
 Operand code
OPERATION CODE & OPERAND CODE
 Operation code represents the action that the
processor execute.
 Operand code defines the parameters of the
action. The operand code depends on the
operation. It can be data or a memory
address.
TYPES OF INSTRUCTION.
 There are different types of instructions
 Data transfer instructions
 Data processing instructions
 Program control instructions
 Miscellaneous instructions
DATA TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS

 The data transfer instructions move data

between memory and the general-purpose
and segment registers, and perform
operations such as conditional moves, stack
access, and data conversion.
DATA PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS
 It is also known as data manipulation
instruction.
 To change data (add, subtract).
PROGRAM CONTROL INSTRUCTION
 Program control is how a program makes
decisions or organizes its activities. Program
control typically involves executing
particular code based on the outcome of a
prior operation or a user input.
COMMUNICATION PATH IN CPU:

 The links or paths between various units such

as ALU. Control Unit and the Main Memory
Unit are called buses. A bus is an electrical to
transfer a signal from one point to another in
a circuit. A bus is classified according to its
functions as:
 Control bus
 Address bus
 Data bus
DATA BUS
 A data bus can transfer data to and from the
memory of a computer, or into or out of the
central processing unit (CPU) that acts as the
device's "engine." A data buscan also
transfer information between two
computers.
ADDRESS BUS
 An address bus is a computer bus (a series
of lines connecting two or more devices) that
is used to specify a physical address.
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE:

 As discussed earlier, the computer is an electronic machine used to

perform several activities. All activities of a computer are guided by the
programs. A program is simply a set of instructions or commands that
tells the computer how to perform a specific job.
 A language is a way of communication, such as Urdu, Pashto, Farsi, and
English, and many other human languages. With the help of languages,
the people convey their ideas and messages to one another.
 A computer language, just as a human language, is a way of
communication between the users (people) and the computer. With the
help of programming language, people solve their problems through the
computer. To perform a specific task, instructions are given to the
computer. The instructions are given according to the rules of the
programming language. These rules are called the syntax of the language
and the process of writing a computer program is called coding.
TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES:

 Many programming languages are available

to prepare a computer program. Some
programming languages are very close to the
human language and some programming
languages are close to machine codes or
binary codes. The programming languages
are, therefore, divided into two groups:
 High Level Languages
 Low Level Languages
HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES:

 The programming languages which are very close to human

languages are called high level languages.
 The programs and instruction written in high level languages are
very close to the English language (or some other human language).
But each high level language has its own rules for writing a
computer program. These rules are called syntax of the language.
 The computer programs written in high level languages are called
source programs. As noted earlier, the computer works only with
binary digits or machine code. The source programs are, therefore,
converted into computer codes with the help of translator
programs. Translato programs are discussed in next topic in detail.
 The main high level programming languages are:
LOW LEVEL LANGUAGE:

 The programming languages which are very

close to Machine Code are called Low Level
Language. The programs or instructions
written in these languages are in binary form
and are very close to the machine language.
The main low level languages are:
CHAPTER 4. INSIDE SYSTEM
CPU
COMPUTER CASINGS
 Desktop casing
 Tower casing.
DESKTOP CASING
TOWER CASING
POWER SUPPLY
BIOS
PORTS
EXPANSION SLOTS
OSI MODEL
UNIT 6
 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
IMPORTANT WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
TERMINOLOGIES
RADIO SIGNALS
EXAMPLE OF RADIO WAVES
RADIO TRANSCEIVER
EXAMPLE
WIRELESS ACCESS POINT
EXAMPLE OF ACCESS POINT
SHORT DISTANCE WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
CHAPTER NO 7
DATA MODELING AND ENTITY RELATIONSHIP
DIAGRAM