MICROWAVE

&
ANTENNAS [20EC72]

Module 4 :
Point Sources and Arrays (Part 1) &
Electric Dipoles (Part 2)

Girijamba D L, Assistant Professor, ECE, VVCE 2023 - 24 (ODD Sem)

 MODULE 4 - CONTENTS
 Point Sources and Arrays: (Part 1)
 Introduction,
 Point Sources, Power Patterns, Power Theorem, Radiation Intensity,
 Field Patterns, Phase Patterns,
 Arrays of Two Isotropic Point Sources,
 Pattern Multiplication,
 Linear Arrays of n Isotropic Point Sources of equal Amplitude and Spacing.

 Electric Dipoles: (Part 2)

 Introduction,
 Short Electric Dipole,
 Fields of a Short Dipole (General and Far Field Analyses),
 Radiation Resistance of a Short Dipole,
 Radiation Pattern of an Isotropic Antenna

Antennas are rated in comparison to

isotropic or dipole antennas.

An isotropic antenna is a theoretical

antenna with a uniform three-dimensional
radiation pattern.
In other words, a theoretical isotropic
antenna has a perfect 360 degree vertical
and horizontal beam width or a spherical
radiation pattern.

It is an ideal antenna which radiates in all directions and has a gain of 1 (0 dB),
i.e. zero gain and zero loss.

It is used to compare the power level of a given antenna to the theoretical isotropic
antenna.
 Radiation Pattern of an Omni Antenna

Omni-directional antennas have a similar radiation pattern.

These antennas provide a 360 degree horizontal radiation pattern.

These are used when coverage is required in all directions (horizontally) from the
antenna with varying degrees of vertical coverage
 Radiation Pattern of a Directional Antenna

Typical Radiation Pattern of a Directional

Antenna with Calibrated Lobes
Directional antennas focus the RF energy in a particular direction.

As the gain of a directional antenna increases, the coverage distance

increases, but the effective coverage angle decreases.

For directional antennas, the lobes are pushed in a certain direction and little
energy is there on the back side of the antenna.
Field distribution on a /2 Dipole

Wave propagation
 INTRODUCTION
 The pattern of any antenna can be regarded as produced by an array of point sources.

 A point source is a single identifiable localized source of something.

 An isotropic radiator is a theoretical point source of electromagnetic or sound waves

which radiates the same intensity of radiation in all directions.

 It has no preferred direction of radiation.

 It radiates uniformly in all directions over a sphere centered on the source.

 Isotropic radiators are used as reference radiators with which other sources are compared,
for example in determining the gain of antennas.

Fig: Animated diagram of waves from an isotropic Fig: A depiction of an isotropic radiator of sound,
radiator (red dot). published in Popular Science Monthly in 1878.
POWER PATTERNS
 ARRAYS OF
TWO ISOTROPIC POINT
SOURCES
ANTENNA ARRAYS
 Antenna array composed of several similar radiating elements (e.g., dipoles or
horns).

 Element spacing and the relative amplitudes and phases of the element
excitation determine the array’s radiative properties.

Planar array

Linear array examples

Two-dimensional array of
microstrip patch antennas 18
ANTENNA ARRAYS
 An antenna, when individually can radiate an amount of energy, in a
particular direction, resulting in better transmission.
 If few more elements are added it, to produce more efficient output.
 It is exactly this idea, which led to the invention of Antenna arrays.

 An antenna array is a radiating system, which consists of individual

radiators and elements.
 Each of this radiator, while functioning has its own induction field.
 The elements are placed so closely that each one lies in the neighboring one’s
induction field.
 Therefore, the radiation pattern produced by them, would be the vector sum of
the individual ones. 19
ANTENNA ARRAYS
 The spacing between the elements and the length of the elements according to
the wavelength are also to be kept in mind while designing these antennas.
 The antennas radiate individually and while in array, the radiation of all the
elements sum up, to form the radiation beam, which has high gain, high
directivity and better performance, with minimum losses.

Advantages : The following are the advantages of using antenna arrays −

 The signal strength increases
 High directivity is obtained
 Minor lobes are reduced much
 High Signal-to-noise ratio is achieved
 High gain is obtained
 Power wastage is reduced
 Better performance is obtained

Disadvantages : The following are the disadvantages of array antennas −

• Resistive losses are increased
• Mounting and maintenance is difficult
• Huge external space is required
20
ANTENNA ARRAYS
Applications
The following are the applications of array antennas −
•Used in satellite communications
•Used in wireless communications
•Used in military radar communications
•Used in the astronomical study

Types of Arrays
The basic types of arrays are −
•Collinear array
•Broad side array
•End fire array
•Parasitic array
•Yagi-Uda array
•Log-peroidic array
•Turnstile array
•Super-turnstile array
Antenna array of URAN-2 radio
telescope
21
PHASE

• Let the two point sources,1 and 2, be separated by a distance ‘d’ and located
symmetrically w.r.t the origin of the coordinates as shown in Fig (a).

• The angle ϕ is measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis.

• The origin of the coordinates is taken as the reference for phase.

PHASE

(i) Maximum Fields Direction (ϕm)

(ii) Null Fields Direction (ϕ0)

(iii) Half Power Fields Direction (ϕHP)

PHASE

• At a distant point in the direction ϕ the field from source 1 is retarded by ½ dr cosϕ,
while the field from source 2 is advanced by ½ dr cosϕ.

• Where dr is the distance between the sources expressed in radians; that is,

• ………. (1)

• The total field at a large distance r in the direction ϕ is then :

• ………. (2)

• where ψ = dr cosϕ & the amplitude of field components at the distance ‘r’ is given by E0.

• Equation (2) may be rewritten as

• which by a trigonometric identity is:

• ………. (3)
PHASE

• ………. (3)

• W.K.T ψ = dr cosϕ & dr = 2πd / λ

• Here d=λ/2 then dr = 2π (λ) / λ (2) = π
• To normalize (3), that is, make its maximum value unity, set 2E0 = 1.

• ………. (4)

(i) Maximum Fields Direction (ϕm)

Maximum Fields (peaks) in the ϕm direction is obtained equating eqn (4) angle to ±kπ i.e.,

Where k = 0, 1, 2, 3……obtained
PHASE
(i) Maximum Fields Direction (ϕm)
•Maximum Fields (peaks) in the ϕ m direction is obtained equating eqn (4) angle to ±kπ i.e.,

Where k = 0, 1, 2, 3……

•For K = 0; ϕm = ± 900

•For K = 1; ϕm = ꝏ
PHASE
(ii) Null Fields Direction (ϕ0)
•Null Fields in the ϕ0 direction is obtained equating eqn (4) angle to ± (2k+1) π/2 i.e.,

Where k = 0, 1, 2, 3……

•For K = 0; ϕ0 = ± 00 , ± 1800

•For K = 1; ϕ0 = ꝏ
PHASE
(iii) Half Power Fields Direction (ϕHP)
•Half Power Fields in the ϕHP direction is obtained equating eqn (4) angle to ± (2k+1) π/4 i.e.,

Where k = 0, 1, 2, 3……

•For K = 0; ϕHP = ± 600 , ± 1200

•For K = 1; ϕHP = ꝏ
Angles obtained are:-
Peaks - ϕm = ± 900
Nulls - ϕ0 = ± 00 , ± 1800
HP Points - ϕHP = ± 600 , ± 1200
PHASE

• The field pattern of E versus ϕ as expressed by equation (4) is presented in Fig (c).

• The pattern is a bidirectional figure-of-eight with maxima along the y axis.

• The space pattern is doughnut-shaped, being a figure-of- revolution of this pattern around
the x axis.
CASE 2. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE BUT OPPOSITE PHASE

• Let the two point sources,1 and 2, be separated by a distance ‘d’ and located
symmetrically w.r.t the origin of the coordinates as shown in Fig (a).

• The angle ϕ is measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis.

• The origin of the coordinates is taken as the reference for phase.

CASE 2. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE BUT OPPOSITE
PHASE

• At a distant point in the direction ϕ the field from source 1 is retarded by ½ dr cosϕ,
while the field from source 2 is advanced by ½ dr cosϕ.

• Where dr is the distance between the sources expressed in radians; that is,

• ………. (1)

• The total field at a large distance r in the direction ϕ is then :

• ………. (2)

• where ψ = dr cosϕ & the amplitude of field components at the distance ‘r’ is given by E0.

• Equation (2) may be rewritten as

• which by a trigonometric identity is:

• ………. (3)
CASE 2. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE BUT OPPOSITE
PHASE

• ………. (3)

• W.K.T ψ = dr cosϕ & dr = 2πd / λ

• Here d=λ/2 then dr = 2π (λ) / λ (2) = π
• To normalize (3), that is, make its maximum value unity, set 2jE0 = 1.

• ………. (4)

(i) Maximum Fields Direction (ϕm)

Maximum Fields (peaks) in the ϕm direction is obtained equating eqn (4) angle to
±(2k+1)π/2 i.e.,

Where k = 0, 1, 2, 3……obtained
CASE 2. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE BUT OPPOSITE
PHASE

(i) Maximum Fields Direction (ϕm)

•Maximum Fields (peaks) in the ϕ m direction is obtained equating eqn (4) angle to ±(2k+1)π/2
i.e.,

Where k = 0, 1, 2, 3……

•For K = 0; ϕm = ± 00 , ± 1800

•For K = 1; ϕm = ꝏ
CASE 2. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE BUT OPPOSITE
PHASE

(ii) Null Fields Direction (ϕ0)

•Null Fields in the ϕ0 direction is obtained equating eqn (4) angle to ± kπ i.e.,

Where k = 0, 1, 2, 3……

•For K = 0; ϕ0 = ± 900

•For K = 1; ϕ0 = ꝏ
CASE 2. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE BUT OPPOSITE
PHASE

(iii) Half Power Fields Direction (ϕHP)

•Half Power Fields in the ϕHP direction is obtained equating eqn (4) angle to ± (2k+1) π/4 i.e.,

Where k = 0, 1, 2, 3……

•For K = 0; ϕHP = ± 600 , ± 1200

•For K = 1; ϕHP = ꝏ
Angles obtained are:-
Peaks - ϕm = ± 00 , ± 1800
Nulls - ϕ0 = ± 900
HP Points - ϕHP = ± 600 , ± 1200
CASE 2. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE BUT OPPOSITE
PHASE

Figure : Relative field pattern for two isotropic point sources of the same amplitude but opposite
phase, spaced λ/2 apart.

• The field pattern of E versus ϕ as expressed by equation (4) is presented in Fig (c).

• The pattern is a relatively broad figure-of-eight with the maximum field in the same
direction as the line joining the sources (x axis).

• The space pattern is a figure-of-revolution of this pattern around the x axis.

• The two sources, in this case, may be described as a simple type of “end-fire” array.
CASE 1. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE AND
PHASE BROAD
SIDE
ARRAY
CASE 2. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT
SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE END
BUT OPPOSITE PHASE FIRE
ARRAY
 CASE 2. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT
CASE 1. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE AND
PHASE SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE
BUT OPPOSITE PHASE

(i) Maximum Fields Direction (ϕm)

(i) Maximum Fields Direction (ϕm)

(ii) Null Fields Direction (ϕ0)

(ii) Null Fields Direction (ϕ0)

(iii) Half Power Fields Direction (ϕHP)

(iii) Half Power Fields Direction (ϕHP)

BROAD
SIDE END
ARRAY FIRE
ARRAY
 STANDARD
STANDARD

u t of e
O se pha s
pha In
CASE 1 : PROOF
CASE 1 : PROOF
CASE 1 : PROOF
CASE 2 : PROOF
CASE 2 : PROOF
CASE 2 : PROOF
 CASE 1& 2 : PROOF Summary

STANDARD
STANDARD

a se u t of
h O se
In p pha
NUMERICAL PROBLEM
CASE 3. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE BUT INPHASE
QUADRATURE

• Let the two point sources,1 and 2, be separated by a distance ‘d’ and located
symmetrically w.r.t the origin of the coordinates as shown in Fig (a).

• The angle ϕ is measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis.

• The origin of the coordinates is taken as the reference for phase.

CASE 3. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE BUT INPHASE
QUADRATURE

• At a distant point in the direction ϕ the field from source 1 is retarded by ½ dr cosϕ,
while the field from source 2 is advanced by ½ dr cosϕ.

• Where dr is the distance between the sources expressed in radians; that is,

• ………. (1)

• The total field at a large distance r in the direction ϕ is then :

• ………. (2)

• where ψ = dr cosϕ & the amplitude of field components at the distance ‘r’ is given by E0.

• Equation (2) may be rewritten using trigonometric identity as:

• ………. (3)
CASE 3. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE BUT INPHASE
QUADRATURE

• W.K.T ψ = dr cosϕ & dr = 2πd / λ

• Here d=λ/2 then dr = 2π (λ) / λ (2) = π
• To normalize (3), that is, make its maximum value unity, set 2E0 = 1.

………. (4)
CASE 3. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE BUT INPHASE
QUADRATURE

(i) Maximum Fields Direction (ϕm)

•Maximum Fields (peaks) in the ϕ m direction is obtained equating eqn (4) angle to ±kπ i.e.,

π cos ϕm + π = ± k π Where k = 0, 1, 2, 3……

2 4
•For K = 0; ϕm = ± 1200

•For K = 1; ϕm = ꝏ
CASE 3. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE BUT INPHASE
QUADRATURE

(ii) Null Fields Direction (ϕ0)

•Null Fields in the ϕ0 direction is obtained equating eqn (4) angle to ± (2k+1) π/2 i.e.,

π cos ϕo + π = ± (2k+1) π Where k = 0, 1, 2, 3……

2 4 2
•For K = 0; ϕ0 = ± 600

•For K = 1; ϕ0 = ꝏ
CASE 3. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE BUT INPHASE
QUADRATURE

(iii) Half Power Fields Direction (ϕHP)

•Half Power Fields in the ϕHP direction is obtained equating eqn (4) angle to ± (2k+1) π/4 i.e.,

π cos ϕHP + π = ± (2k+1) π Where k = 0, 1, 2, 3……

2 4 4
•For K = 0; ϕHP = ± 900 , ± 1800

•For K = 1; ϕHP = 00 , ꝏ
CASE 3. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE BUT INPHASE
QUADRATURE

Angles obtained are:-

Peaks - ϕm = ± 1200 => 1200, 3000

Nulls - ϕ0 = ± 600 => 600 , 2400

HP Points- ϕHP = 900 , 2700 , 1800 , 00

CASE 3. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE BUT INPHASE
QUADRATURE
CASE 3. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT
SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE
AND INPHASE QUADRATURE
 NUMERICAL PROBLEM
2) Consider an antenna array system having two isotropic point sources of equal
amplitudes & inphase quadrature. The point sources are distanced apart by λ/4
NUMERICAL PROBLEM
NUMERICAL PROBLEM
NUMERICAL PROBLEM
NUMERICAL PROBLEM
 NUMERICAL PROBLEM

• Two isotropic point sources of equal

amplitudes & in phase quadrature.

• The point sources are distanced

apart by d = λ/4
• Two isotropic point sources of equal
amplitudes & in phase quadrature.

• The point sources are distanced

apart by d = λ/4
STANDARD BROAD SIDE ARRAY
STANDARD END FIRE ARRAY
CASE 4. GENERAL CASE OF TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF EQUAL
AMPLITUDE AND ANY PHASE DIFFERENCE
• To get general solution for array system.

• Let us consider the case of 2 isotropic point

sources of equal amplitude and any phase
difference.

• The total phase difference (ѱ) between the

fields from source 2 and source 1 at a large
distance 'r' in ϕ direction is given by:-

Fig 1 : Two Point sources separated by distance ‘d’

CASE 4. GENERAL CASE OF TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF EQUAL
AMPLITUDE AND ANY PHASE DIFFERENCE
CASE 5. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF UNEQUAL AMPLITUDE AND ANY
PHASE DIFFERENCE

• Assume source 2 amplitude < source 1 amplitude by a factor of ‘a’. [0 ≤ a ≤ 1]

CASE 5. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF UNEQUAL AMPLITUDE AND ANY
PHASE DIFFERENCE

• Assume source 2 amplitude < source 1 amplitude by a factor of ‘a’. [0 ≤ a ≤ 1]

CASE 5. TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF UNEQUAL AMPLITUDE AND ANY
PHASE DIFFERENCE
NON-ISOTROPIC BUT SIMILAR POINT SOURCES AND THE
PRINCIPLE OF PATTERN MULTIPLICATION
NON-ISOTROPIC BUT SIMILAR POINT SOURCES AND THE
PRINCIPLE OF PATTERN MULTIPLICATION
NON-ISOTROPIC BUT SIMILAR POINT SOURCES AND THE
PRINCIPLE OF PATTERN MULTIPLICATION
NON-ISOTROPIC BUT SIMILAR POINT SOURCES AND THE
PRINCIPLE OF PATTERN MULTIPLICATION
NON-ISOTROPIC BUT SIMILAR POINT SOURCES AND THE
PRINCIPLE OF PATTERN MULTIPLICATION
NON-ISOTROPIC BUT SIMILAR POINT SOURCES AND THE
PRINCIPLE OF PATTERN MULTIPLICATION
NON-ISOTROPIC BUT SIMILAR POINT SOURCES AND THE
PRINCIPLE OF PATTERN MULTIPLICATION
NON-ISOTROPIC BUT SIMILAR POINT SOURCES AND THE
PRINCIPLE OF PATTERN MULTIPLICATION
NON-ISOTROPIC BUT SIMILAR POINT SOURCES AND THE
PRINCIPLE OF PATTERN MULTIPLICATION
LINEAR ARRAY OF N ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF EQUAL
AMPLITUDE & SPACING
LINEAR ARRAY OF N ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF EQUAL
AMPLITUDE & SPACING
LINEAR ARRAY OF N ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF EQUAL
AMPLITUDE & SPACING
STANDARD BROAD SIDE ARRAY

STANDARD END FIRE ARRAY

STANDARD BROAD SIDE ARRAY
STANDARD END FIRE ARRAY
NUMERICAL PROBLEM
NUMERICAL PROBLEM
Interactive Antenna Array Simulator
https://www.analyzemath.com/antenna_tutorials/
NUMERICAL PROBLEM
Interactive Antenna Array Simulator
https://www.analyzemath.com/antenna_tutorials/
NUMERICAL PROBLEM
Valid and Invalid Side lobes are
Interactive Antenna Array Simulator
https://www.analyzemath.com/antenna_tutorials/
BROAD SIDE ARRAY
Broadside array example Peaks: Side lobes:
ϕmax = 900 & 2700 Φminor lobes = ±41.40 or
n=4 and d=λ/2
±138.60

Nulls:
Φnull = ±600 or ±1200,
00 or ±1800

BWFN:
BWFN = 2 (900 – Φnull)
BWFN = 2 (900 – 600)
BWFN = 600
END FIRE ARRAY
End fire array example Peaks: Side lobes:
ϕmax = 00 & 1800 Φminor lobes = ±75.50 or
n=4 and d= λ /2
±104.40

Nulls:
Φnull = ±600 or ±900,
±1200 or ±1800

BWFN:
BWFN = 2 (Φnull)
BWFN = 2 (600)
BWFN = 1200