Arba-Minch University College of

Medicine and Health sciences

Department of Epidemiology
and Biostatistics

Sampling Methods
Learning Objectives

• Identify and define the population to be studied

• Identify and describe common methods of
sampling
• Recognize means of avoiding bias when
selecting a sample
• Decide on the sampling methods for the
proposed research proposal
What Sampling?

• Definition :The act, process, or technique of selecting

a suitable sample, or a representative part of a
population for the purpose of determining parameters
or characteristics of the whole population.

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• A sample is a collection of individuals selected
from a larger population.

• For example, we may have a single sample

composed of 50 individuals, representing a
population of 1000 people.
• Sampling enables us to estimate the
characteristic of a population by directly
observing a portion of the population.

• Researchers are not interested in the sample

itself, but in what can be learned from the
sample—and how this information can be
applied to the entire population.
Sample Information

Population
• Therefore, it is essential that a sample should
be correctly defined and organized.

• If the wrong questions are posed to the

wrong people, reliable information will not
be received and lead to a wrong conclusion
when applied to the entire population.
 Reasons for Sampling

• There would be no need for statistical theory if a

census rather than a sample was always used to
obtain information about populations.

• A census may not be practical and is almost never

economical.

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Sampling…
• Main reasons for sampling instead of doing a
census.
– Economy
– Timeliness
– The large size of many populations
– Inaccessibility of some of the population
– accuracy

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Steps needed to select a sample and ensure that this
sample will fulfill its goals.
1. Establish the study's objectives
– The first step in planning a useful and efficient survey
is to specify the objectives with as much detail as
possible.
– Clarifying the aims of the survey is critical to its
ultimate success.
– Without objectives, the survey is unlikely to generate
valuable results.
– The initial users and uses of the data should be
identified at this stage.
2. Define the target population
– The target population is the total population
for which the information is required.
– Specifically, the target population is defined
by the following characteristics:
• Nature of data required
• Geographic location
• Reference period
• Other characteristics, such as socio-demographic
characteristics
3. Decide on the data to be collected
– The data requirements of the survey must be
established.

– To ensure that the requirements are operationally

sound, the necessary data terms and definitions also
need to be determined.
4. Set the level of precision
– There is a level of uncertainty associated with
estimates coming from a sample.
– Researchers can estimate the sampling error
associated with a particular sampling plan, and try to
minimize it.
– Sample-to-sample variation causes sampling error

↑ Sample size ≡ ↑ Precision ≡ ↑ Cost

– Acceptable precision is important

5. Decide on the methods on measurement
– Choose measuring instrument and method of
approach to the population
– Data about a person’s state of health may be
obtained from statements that he/she makes or
from a medical examination
– The survey may employ a self-administered
questionnaire, an interviewing
6. Preparing Frame
– List of all members of the population from
which the sample will be taken
– The elements must not overlap
 The sample design
• Sample design: how the sample will be collected.
• Estimation techniques: how the results from the
sample will be extended to the whole population.
• Measures of precision: how the sampling error
will be measured.
Other Considerations
• Sample size determination
• Questionnaire development
• Pretest
• Organization of the field work
• Data collection
• Summary and analysis of the data
– Edit the completed questionnaires
– Decide on computation procedures
Sampling theory in public health
• A health survey (sampling) is a planned
study to investigate the health
characteristics of a population
 A health survey is used to:
• Measure the total amount of illness in the population;

• Measure the amount of illness caused by a specified

disease;
• Examine the utilization of existing health care facilities
and demand for new ones;
• Measure the distribution of a particular characteristic,
e.g.. breast-feeding practice in the population;
• Examine the role and relationship of one or more factors
in the aetiology of a disease.
Sampling
• The process of selecting a portion of the
population to represent the entire population.
• A main concern in sampling:
– Ensure that the sample represents the
population, and
– The findings can be generalized.
 Advantages of sampling:
• Feasibility: Sampling may be the only feasible method of
collecting information.
• Reduced cost: Sampling reduces demands on resource
such as finance, personnel, and material.
• Greater accuracy: Sampling may lead to better accuracy
of collecting data
• Sampling error: Precise allowance can be made for
sampling error
• Greater speed: Data can be collected and summarized
more quickly
 Disadvantages of sampling:
• There is always a sampling error.
• Sampling may create a feeling of
discrimination within the population.
Hierarchy of sampling

Study subjects

The actual participants in the study

Sample
Subjects who are selected
Sampling frame
The list of potential subjects from which the sample is drawn
Source population
The population from whom the study subjects would be obtained
Target population
The population to whom the results would be applied

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Sampling…

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• While selecting a SAMPLE, there are basic
questions:
– What is the group of people (STUDY
POPULATION) from which we want to draw
a sample?
– How many people do we need in our sample?

– How will these people be selected?

• Reference population (or target population):
the population of interest to whom the
researchers would like to make generalizations.

• Sampling population: the subset of the target

population from which a sample will be drawn.

• Study population: the actual group in which the

study is conducted = Sample

• Study unit: the units on which information will

be collected: persons, housing units, etc.
Researchers are interested to know about factors
associated with ART use among HIV/AIDS patients
attending certain hospitals in a given Region

Target population = All ART

patients in the Region

Sampling population = All

ART patients in, e.g. 3,
hospitals in the Region

Sample
 Errors in sampling
1) Sampling error: Errors introduced due to errors
in the selection of a sample.
– They cannot be avoided or totally eliminated.
2) Non-sampling error:
- Observational error
- Respondent error
- Lack of preciseness of definition
- Errors in editing and tabulation of data
Sampling Methods
Two broad divisions:

A. Probability sampling methods

B. Non-probability sampling methods

A. Probability sampling
• Involves random selection of a sample

• Every sampling unit has a known and

non-zero probability of selection into the
sample.

• Involves the selection of a sample from a

population, based on chance.
• Probability sampling is:
– more complex,
– more time-consuming and
– usually more costly than non-probability
sampling.
• However, because study samples are
randomly selected and their probability of
inclusion can be calculated,
– reliable estimates can be produced and
– inferences can be made about the population.
• There are several different ways in which a
probability sample can be selected.

• The method chosen depends on a number

of factors, such as
– the available sampling frame,
– how spread out the population is,
– how costly it is to survey members of the
population
Most common probability sampling methods

1. Simple random sampling

2. Systematic random sampling
3. Stratified random sampling
4. Cluster sampling
5. Multi-stage sampling
6. Sampling with probability proportional to size
1. Simple random sampling
• The required number of individuals are selected
at random from the sampling frame, a list or a
database of all individuals in the population

• Each member of a population has an equal

chance of being included in the sample.
• To use a SRS method:
– Make a numbered list of all the units in the
population
– Each unit should be numbered from 1 to N (where
N is the size of the population)
• Select the required number. The randomness of the
sample is ensured by:
• Use of “lottery’ methods

• Table of random numbers

• Computer programs
 Random number table
• It is a table of random numbers constructed by a
process that
1. In any position in the table, each of the
numbers 0 through 9 has a probability
1/10 of occurring.
2. The occurrence of any number in one part of
the table is independent of the occurrence of
any number in any other part of the table.
 Random numbers
…. 8094 2525 8247 1347 7433 3620 1897 ….
…. 3563 2198 8211 9045 2618 2751 2627 ….
…. 1330 6331 3753 9693 8738 6815 1538 ….
…. 3565 0016 2243 6432 4796 6095 5283 ….
…. 7850 5925 5588 7311 2192 4545 3530 ….
…. 4490 5417 9727 6153 5901 4878 9980 ….
…. 6545 9104 9318 8819 7537 2785 9373 ….
Example
• Suppose your school has 500 students and you
need to conduct a short survey on the quality of the
food served in the cafeteria.
• You decide that a sample of 10 students should be
sufficient for your purposes.
• In order to get your sample, you assign a number
from 1 to 500 to each student in your school.
• To select the sample, you use a table of
randomly generated numbers.

• Pick a starting point in the table (a row and

column number) and look at the random
numbers that appear there.

• In this case, since the data run into three digits,

the random numbers would need to contain
three digits as well.
• Ignore all random numbers after 500 because they
do not correspond to any of the students in the
school.
• Remember that the sample is without replacement,
so if a number recurs, skip over it and use the next
random number.
• The first 10 different numbers between 001 and
500 make up your sample.
Advantages( merit) of SRS Disadvantages(Demerit)
• Simple to compute • Need sampling frame
• No bias • Units may be scattered
• Small variability and poorly accessible
• Heterogeneous
population/ important
minorities might not be
taken into account

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• SRS has certain limitations:
– Requires a sampling frame.

– Difficult if the reference population is dispersed.

– Minority subgroups of interest may not be selected.

 2. Systematic random sampling
• Sometimes called interval sampling

• Selection of individuals from the sampling frame

systematically rather than randomly
• Individuals are taken at regular intervals down
the list
• The starting point is chosen at random
• Important if the reference population is
arranged in some order:
– Order of registration of patients
– Numerical number of house numbers
– Student’s registration books

• Taking individuals at fixed intervals (every

kth) based on the sampling fraction.
Steps in systematic random sampling
1. Number the units on your frame from 1 to N (where N
is the total population size).

2. Determine the sampling interval (K) by dividing the

number of units in the population by the desired sample
size.
3. Select a number between one and K at random. This
number is called the random start and would be the
first number included in your sample.

4. Select every Kth unit after that first number

Example: the researcher wants to know the prevalence
of malnutrition among under 5 children in woreda x

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Advantages( merit) of SRS Disadvantages(Demerit)
• Simple to compute • Need sampling frame
• No bias • Units may be scattered
• Small variability and poorly accessible
• Heterogeneous population/
important minorities might
not be taken into account

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 Advantages of SRS Disadvantages
• Sampling frame is not a • If there is any sort of cyclic
must pattern in the ordering of
• Less time consuming and the subjects , the sample
easier to perform will not be representative
• Make geographical spread of the population.
certain if the units are in
“geographical” order.

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Example
• To select a sample of 100 from a population of
400, you would need a sampling interval of
400 ÷ 100 = 4.
• Therefore, K = 4.
• You will need to select one unit out of every
four units to end up with a total of 100 units in
your sample.
• Select a number between 1 and 4 from a table
of random numbers.
• If you choose 3, the third unit on your frame
would be the first unit included in your
sample;

• The sample might consist of the following

units to make up a sample of 100: 3 (the
random start), 7, 11, 15, 19...395, 399 (up to
N, which is 400 in this case).
• Using the above example, you can see that with
a systematic sample approach there are only
four possible samples that can be selected,
corresponding to the four possible random
starts:
A. 1, 5, 9, 13...393, 397
B. 2, 6, 10, 14...394, 398
C. 3, 7, 11, 15...395, 399
D. 4, 8, 12, 16...396, 400
• Each member of the population belongs to
only one of the four samples and each sample
has the same chance of being selected.

• The main difference with SRS, any

combination of 100 units would have a chance
of making up the sample, while with
systematic sampling, there are only four
possible samples.
3. Stratified random sampling
• It is done when the population is known to be have
heterogeneity with regard to some factors and those
factors are used for stratification
• Using stratified sampling, the population is divided into
homogeneous, mutually exclusive groups called strata, and
• A population can be stratified by any variable that is
available for all units prior to sampling (e.g., age, sex,
province of residence, income, etc.).
• A separate sample is taken independently from
each stratum.

• Any of the sampling methods mentioned in

this section (and others that exist) can be used
to sample within each stratum.
• Stratified sampling ensures an adequate sample
size for sub-groups in the population of interest.

• When a population is stratified, each stratum

becomes an independent population and you
will need to decide the sample size for each
stratum.
 Example:
An agency has clients from three ethnic groups and the agency wants
to asses clients view of quality of service for the last year.

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 Merit Demerit
• The representativeness of • Sampling frame for the
the sample is improved/ entire population has to be
representation of minority prepared separately for
subgroups . each stratum.

• there is difficulty in
reaching all selected in the
sample

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• Equal allocation:
– Allocate equal sample size to each stratum
• Proportionate allocation:
n
nj  Nj
N
– nj is sample size of the jth stratum
– Nj is population size of the jth stratum
– n = n1 + n2 + ...+ nk is the total sample size
– N = N1 + N2 + ...+ Nk is the total population
size
Example: Proportionate Allocation

• Village A B C D Total
• HHs 100 150 120 130 500
• S. size ? ? ? ? 60
 4. Cluster sampling
• Sometimes it is too expensive to carry out SRS
– Population may be large and scattered.
– Complete list of the study population unavailable
– Travel costs can become expensive if interviewers have
to survey people from one end of the country to the
other.
• Cluster sampling is the most widely used to
reduce the cost
• The clusters should be homogeneous, unlike
stratified sampling where the strata are
heterogeneous
Steps in cluster sampling
• Cluster sampling divides the population into groups or
clusters.
• A number of clusters are selected randomly to represent
the total population, and then all units within selected
clusters are included in the sample.
• No units from non-selected clusters are included in the
sample—they are represented by those from selected
clusters.
• This differs from stratified sampling, where some units are
selected from each group.
Example
• In a school based study, we assume students of
the same school are homogeneous.

• We can select randomly sections and include all

students of the selected sections only
 Advantages

• Cost reduction

• It creates 'pockets' of sampled units instead of

spreading the sample over the whole territory.
• Sometimes a list of all units in the population is
not available, while a list of all clusters is either
available or easy to create.
 Disadvantages

• Creates a loss of efficiency when compared with SRS.

• It is usually better to survey a large number of small

clusters instead of a small number of large clusters.
– This is because neighboring units tend to be more alike,
resulting in a sample that does not represent the whole spectrum
of opinions or situations present in the overall population.
• Another drawback to cluster sampling is that you
do not have total control over the final sample size.
• Since not all schools have the same number of (say
Grade 11) students and city blocks do not all have
the same number of households, and you must
interview every student or household in your
sample, as an example, the final size may be larger
or smaller than you expected.
5. Multi-stage sampling
• Similar to the cluster sampling, except that it
involves picking a sample from within each
chosen cluster, rather than including all units
in the cluster.
• This type of sampling requires at least two
stages.
• The primary sampling unit (PSU) is the
sampling unit in the first sampling stage.

• The secondary sampling unit (SSU) is the

sampling unit in the second sampling stage,
etc.
 Woreda PSU

Kebele SSU

Sub-Kebele TSU

HH
• In the first stage, large groups or clusters are
identified and selected. These clusters contain
more population units than are needed for the
final sample.

• In the second stage, population units are picked

from within the selected clusters (using any of
the possible probability sampling methods) for
a final sample.
• If more than two stages are used, the process of
choosing population units within clusters continues
until there is a final sample.

• With multi-stage sampling, you still have the benefit

of a more concentrated sample for cost reduction.

• However, the sample is not as concentrated as other

clusters and the sample size is still bigger than for a
simple random sample size.
• Also, you do not need to have a list of all of the units in
the population. All you need is a list of clusters and list
of the units in the selected clusters.

• Admittedly, more information is needed in this type of

sample than what is required in cluster sampling.

• However, multi-stage sampling still saves a great

amount of time and effort by not having to create a list
of all the units in a population.
6. Sampling with probability proportional
to size

• Probability sampling requires that each

member of the survey population has a chance
of being included in the sample, but it does not
require that this chance be the same for
everyone.
• Requires that a sampling frame of clusters with
measures of size be available of developed
• This information can be used in the sampling
selection in order to increase the efficiency.
• This is known as sampling with probability
proportional to size (PPS).
• With this method, the bigger the size of the
unit, the higher the chance it has of being
included in the sample.

• For this method to achieve increased

efficiency, the measure of size needs to be
accurate.
 Steps in PPS
• List all Kebeles/clusters with their population
size/HH size
• Calculate the cumulative frequency
• Calculate the sampling interval by dividing the
total population size by the sample size, say K
• Randomly choose a number between 1 and K, say j
• Kebeles/clusters with cumulative frequency
containing the jth, (j+k)th, …. will be included in the
sample
 Example
• Planned clusters to be included in the study = 40
• Cumulative size of the HHs = 17,219
• Sampling interval = 17,219/40 = 430
• Random start between 1 and 430 = 73
• Clusters selected = 001, 005, 008, etc.
Cluster HH size Cum. Sampling Cluster
No. size No. selected
001 120 120 73 001
002 105 225
003 132 357
004 96 453
005 110 563 503 005
006 102 665
007 165 839
008 98 937 933 008
009 115 1,052
. . . . .
. . . . .
170 (last) 196 17,219
When measures of cluster size are not
available
• When the measures of size (population of HH size)
are not available, all clusters will have the same
chance or probability of selection
• This is equal probability
• Decide on the number of clusters to be included in
the study
• Use SRS or systematic sampling to select them
 B. Non-probability sampling
• In non-probability sampling, every item has an
unknown chance of being selected.

• In non-probability sampling, there is an

assumption that there is an even distribution of a
characteristic of interest within the population.

• For probability sampling, random is a feature of

the selection process.
• This is what makes the researcher believe
that any sample would be representative
and because of that, results will be
accurate.

• For probability sampling, random is a

feature of the selection process, rather
than an assumption about the structure of
the population.
• In non-probability sampling, since
elements are chosen arbitrarily, there is no
way to estimate the probability of any one
element being included in the sample.

• Also, no assurance is given that each item

has a chance of being included, making it
impossible either to estimate sampling
variability or to identify possible bias
• Reliability cannot be measured in non-probability
sampling; the only way to address data quality is to
compare some of the survey results with available
information about the population.

• Still, there is no assurance that the estimates will

meet an acceptable level of error.

• Researchers are reluctant to use these methods

because there is no way to measure the precision
of the resulting sample.
• Despite these drawbacks, non-probability
sampling methods can be useful when
descriptive comments about the sample
itself are desired.
• Secondly, they are quick, inexpensive and
convenient.
• There are also other circumstances, such
as researches, when it is unfeasible or
impractical to conduct probability
sampling.
 The most common types of
non-probability sampling
1. Convenience or haphazard sampling
2. Volunteer sampling
3. Judgment sampling
4. Quota sampling
5. Snowball sampling technique
 Convenience Sampling
• For convenience, the study units that are available
at the time of data collection are selected
• Many clinic-based studies

• The sample is not representative of the target

population because sample units are only selected
if they can be accessed easily and conveniently.
 Quota sampling
• This is one of the most common forms of
nonprobability sampling.
• Sampling is done until a specific number of
units(quotas) for different categories of
populations have been selected.
• Should not be confused with stratified sampling
• Not representative, but:
– Less expensive and easy
– Effective when information is urgently needed
Purposive sampling
• The investigator assumes that the study
subjects are typical of the study population
• People who are assumed to provide rich
information are selected
• Qualitative study
 Snowball sampling
• Chain referral sampling

• People who are enrolled in the study are asked to name

others who fulfill the selection criteria using their
networks and contacts
• Useful for identifying hard-to-find individuals

• Example: those with deviant or illegal behavior,

homeless people, MSM, IDU, etc.