Foundry & Casting:

Introduction to foundry
CASTING
• Casting process is one of the earliest metal
shaping techniques known to human being. It
means pouring molten metal into a refractory
mold cavity and allows it to solidify. The
solidified object is taken out from the mold
either by breaking or taking the mold apart.
The solidified object is called casting and the
technique followed in method is known as
casting process.
Steps
• Preparation of a pattern,
• Preparation of a mould with the help of the
pattern,
• Melting of metal or alloy in a furnace,
• Pouring of molten metal into mould cavity,
• Breaking the mould to retrieve the casting,
• Cleaning the casting and cutting off risers, runners
etc., (this operation is called ‘fettling’),
• Inspection of casting.
Advantages
• It can create any complex structure economically.
• The size of object doesn’t matter for casting.
• The casting objects have high compressive strength.
• All structure made by casting has wide range of
properties.
• This can create an accurate object.
• All material can be cast.
• It creates isotropic structure.
• It is cheapest among all manufacturing processes.
• Composite component can be easily made by casting.
Disadvantages
• It gives poor surface finish and mostly requires
surface finish operation.
• Casting defects involves in this process.
• It gives low fatigue strength compare
to forging.
• It is not economical for mass production.
 Pattern
• The pattern part of casting process, it is replica of
the object to cast, and used to prepare the mold
cavity into molten material poured during the
casting process.
• The sand casting pattern making is duplicate
component of molding. The design patterns
material such as wood, metal or plastic and more.
• The main pattern types such as solid pattern, split
pattern, cope and drag, sweep pattern sand casting
in process.
 Functions of Pattern:
• It is used for preparing a mold cavity which is
used for Casting any parts.
• Some accurate pattern can minimize the
production cost of a product because of no
further machining is required.
• It reduces casting defects.
 TYPES
• Single Piece Pattern
• Two-Piece or Split Pattern
• Multipiece Pattern
• Match Plate Pattern
• Gated Pattern
• Sweep Pattern
• Loose Piece Pattern
• Skeleton Pattern
• Shell Pattern
• Segmental Pattern
 Single Piece Pattern
• Single piece pattern, also called solid pattern is
the lowest cost casting pattern. It is very
suitable for simple process, and small scale
production and the large casting
manufacturers prefer it because this kind of
casting pattern make casting process just
needing simple shapes, flat surfaces like
simple rectangular blocks. One flat surface is
used to separate planes.
 Two-Piece Pattern
• Two-piece pattern also called split piece pattern is
a common casting pattern for intricate casting. This
kind of pattern has parting planes which may have
flat or irregular surface, and the exact position of
the plane was decided by the shape of the casting.
There are two pieces of the split piece pattern. One
of the parts is molded in drag and another is
molded in cope. And the cope part always has
dowel pins. With the dowel pins, the two halves of
split piece pattern can be aligned.
 Multi piece pattern
• Multi piece pattern is a good solution for
complex designs which is hard to make. This
kind of pattern includes 3 or more pattern
which helps you achieve mold making.
Take the three-piece pattern as an example.
The pattern is made of the top, bottom, and
middle parts. The top part is cope, the bottom
part drag, and the middle parts are called as
checkbox.
 Match plate pattern
• Match plate pattern has a metallic plate to
divide the cope and drag areas into the
opposite face of the plate. This kind of pattern
nearly has no hard work and can provide high
output. It is widely used in the manufacturing
industry, and usually has an expensive cost,
precise casting and high yield. And this kind of
casting pattern is widely used in metal casting
like aluminum.
 Gate pattern
• Gate pattern can consist of one or more patterns
into a molding pattern. It is designed for the mold
which makes multiple components at one casting
process. The gates are used to combine the
different patterns, and runners to create a flow
way for the molten materials. When the gates
and runners have already attached, the patterns
are loosing. This kind of pattern is expensive, and
it is usually used for small castings.
 Sweep Pattern
• Sweep pattern uses a wooden board with
proper size to rotate along one edge to shape
the cavity. This kind of casting pattern creates
a cavity in the vertical direction and the base
of it is attached with sand, and it also creates
casting in a very short time, and it has
consisted of three parts: spindle, base and
sweep which also called wooden board.
 Loose Piece Pattern
• This type of pattern is
used when a pattern has
projecting parts that lie
below or above the main
parting line in a mold.
That means when some
parts of the product have
a little outer or inner
edge than to casting
those part we use loose
piece patterns.
 Skeleton Pattern
• Skeleton pattern is large in size, and it is a good
choice for the casting which has the simple size
and shape. This kind of casting pattern is
expensive and not versatile. It is not the best
choice from the aspect of economic, while is very
efficient in extra sand removing. If you want to
use this casting pattern you should highlight the
wood frames when you casting. The skeleton
pattern is widely used in the industries of pit or
floor welding.
Shell Pattern
• Shell pattern is a good
choice to create hollow
shaped structure. It
parts along the center
and dowels the
resultant halves.
 Segmental Pattern
• It is used when we need to cast a large circular
ring shape product.
• The final product is completed on a few
repeated steps using this pattern, 1st we mold
it in one place then we rotated the pattern to
the next portion and again the molding is
done.
 Pattern allowances
• A pattern is replica of casting but it has slightly
large dimensions. This change in pattern in
casting due to various reasons is known
as pattern allowances in casting.
 Types of allowance
• shrinkage or contraction allowance:
• Draft allowance
• Finish or machining allowance
• Distortion or camber allowance
• Rapping or shaking allowance
 Shrinkage Allowances
• Shrinkage is defined as reduction is the dimension
of the cast during the cooling or solidification
process. This is a general property of all materials.
The magnitude of shrinkage varies from material to
material but every material shrinks.

Shrinkage is of three types:-

a)Liquid Shrinkage
b) Solidification Shrinkage.
c) Solid Shrinkage
 Draft Allowances
• When the pattern is removed from the mold, the parallel
surface to the direction at which the pattern is withdrawn gets
damaged slightly and gets converted into slightly tapered
surfaces.
For compensation of these changes, these parallel surfaces on
pattern are made slightly tapered (nearly 1 -2 degrees). This
allow easy removal of pattern from the mold and does not
effect the casting by anyway. These changes in pattern surface
to prevent it from damages are called draft allowances.
• The magnitude of taper depends upon:
• a) Molding Methods
• b) Mold materials.
• c) Shape and size of pattern depth direction in contact with
mold cavity.
 Machining allowances:
• As we know that the product of a casting process gives very poor
surface finish, hence the surface of final product of casting will be
rough. But we need a product which is polished and have good
surface finish.
So to obtain good surface finish, the final product of casting is
machined with the processes like turning or grinding to improve the
surface finish.

This machining after the casting process causes a significant loss of

mrtal from the mold part. To compensate this loss, machining or
finishing allowances are given in the pattern of casting. This
allowance is added together with basic size of pattern. It ranges from
lower than 2 mm to 15 mm based on size and material of the part.
The amount of allowance added to the pattern is based on,
a) Material used
b) Machining processes used
c) Requirement of accuracy.
d) Molding methods used.
 Shake or rapping allowances
• When the pattern is to be removed from the sand
of casting , the pattern will have to be shaken
slightly to remove it from the sand and this will
cause a slight increase in dimension of casting.
To compensate this increase in dimension of
casting, the patterns are made slightly smaller
from casting. This change in dimension of pattern
is known as shaking or rapping allowances.
 Distortion or camber allowances
• When the metal is in cooling process, stress is
developed in the solid metal due to uneven metal
thickness in the casting process. This stress may
cause distortion or bending in the casting.
To avoid this bending or distortion in casting,
camber is provided in the opposite direction so
that when bending occurs due to uneven thickness
of metal, casting becomes straight. This change in
pattern shape to compensate bending while
casting is known as Bending Allowances.
 Gating system
• The term gating system refers to all passageways
through which the molten metal mould cavity.
• A proper method of gating system is that it leads
the pure molten metal to flow through a ladle to
the casting cavity, which ensures proper and
smooth filling of the cavity. This depends on the
layout of the gating channels too, such as the
direction and the position of the runner, sprue
and ingates.
 Objective of the Gating System
• Clean molten metal.
• Smooth filling of the casting cavity.
• Uniform filling of the casting cavity.
• Complete filling of the casting cavity.
 The main elements needed for the gating
system are as follows
• Pouring basin or bush.
• Sprue or downspure.
• Sprue Well
• Runner
• Ingate
• Ladle
• Slag trap or filter.
 Pouring basin
• It is the conical hollow element or tapered hollow vertical
portion of the gating system which helps to feed the
molten metal initially through the path of gating system
to mold cavity. It may be made out of core sand or it may
be cut in cope portion of the sand mold. It makes easier
for the ladle operator to direct the flow of molten metal
from crucible to pouring basin and sprue. It helps in
maintaining the required rate of liquid metal flow. It
reduces turbulence and vertexing at the sprue entrance.
It also helps in separating dross, slag and foreign element
etc. from molten metal before it enters the sprue.
 Sprue
• It is a vertical passage made generally in the cope using
tapered sprue pin. It is connected at bottom of pouring
basin. It is tapered with its bigger end at to receive the
molten metal the smaller end is connected to the
runner. It helps to feed molten metal without
turbulence to the runner which in turn reaches the
mold cavity through gate. It some times possesses skim
bob at its lower end. The main purpose of skim bob is
to collect impurities from molten metal and it does not
allow them to reach the mold cavity through runner
and gate.
 Gate
• It is a small passage or channel being cut by
gate cutter which connect runner with the
mould cavity and through which molten metal
flows to fill the mould cavity. It feeds the liquid
metal to the casting at the rate consistent with
the rate of solidification.
 Choke
• It is that part of the gating system which
possesses smallest cross-section area. In
choked system, gate serves as a choke, but in
free gating system sprue serves as a choke.
 Runner
• It is a channel which connects the sprue to the
gate for avoiding turbulence and gas
entrapment.
 Riser
• It is a passage in molding sand made in the cope
portion of the mold. Molten metal rises in it after
filling the mould cavity completely. The molten
metal in the riser compensates the shrinkage
during solidification of the casting thus avoiding
the shrinkage defect in the casting. It also
permits the escape of air and mould gases. It
promotes directional solidification too and helps
in bringing the soundness in the casting.
 Chaplets
• Chaplets are metal distance pieces inserted in a mould
either to prevent shifting of mould or locate core surfaces.
The distances pieces in form of chaplets are made of parent
metal of which the casting is. These are placed in mould
cavity suitably which positions core and to give extra
support to core and mould surfaces. Its main objective is to
impart good alignment of mould and core surfaces and to
achieve directional solidification. When the molten metal is
poured in the mould cavity, the chaplet melts and fuses
itself along with molten metal during solidification and thus
forms a part of the cast material. Various types of chaplets
are shown in Fig.
 Chills
• In some casting, it is required to produce a hard surface at a particular
place in the casting. At that particular position, the special mould surface
for fast extraction of heat is to be made. The fast heat extracting metallic
materials known as chills will be incorporated separately along with sand
mould surface during molding. After pouring of molten metal and during
solidification, the molten metal solidifies quickly on the metallic mould
surface in comparison to other mold sand surfaces. This imparts hardness
to that particular surface because of this special hardening treatment
through fast extracting heat from that particular portion. Thus, the main
function of chill is to provide a hard surface at a localized place in the
casting by way of special and fast solidification.
 Types of Casting
• PERMANENT MOLD OR GRAVITY DIE CASTING:
• This process is commonly known as permanent mold casting in U.S.A
and gravity die casting in England. A permanent mold casting makes
use of a mold or metallic die which is permanent. A typical
permanent mold is shown in Fig.
• Molten metal is poured into the mold under gravity only and no
external pressure is applied to force the liquid metal into the mold
cavity. However, the liquid metal solidifies under pressure of metal in
the risers, etc.
• The metallic mold can be reused many times before it is discarded or
rebuilt. These molds are made of dense, fine grained, heat resistant
cast iron, steel, bronze, anodized aluminum, graphite or other
suitable refractoriness.
• Advantages
• Fine and dense grained structure is achieved in the casting.
• No blow holes exist in castings produced by this method.
• The process is economical for mass production.
• Because of rapid rate of cooling, the castings possess fine grain structure.
• Close dimensional tolerance or job accuracy is possible to achieve on the
cast product.
• Good surface finish and surface details are obtained.
• Casting defects observed in sand castings are eliminated.
• Fast rate of production can be attained.
• The process requires less labor.
• Applications
• This method is suitable for small and medium sized casting such as
carburetor bodies, oil pump bodies, connecting rods, pistons etc.
• It is widely suitable for non-ferrous casting.
 SLUSH CASTING
• Slush casting is an extension of permanent mold casting or
metallic mold casting. It is used widely for production of
hollow casting without the use of core. The process is
similar to metallic mold casting only with the difference that
mold is allowed to open at an early stage (only when a
predetermined amount of molten metal has solidified up to
some thickness) and some un-solidified molten metal fall
down leaving hollowness in the cast object. The process
finds wide applications in production of articles namely
toys, novelties, statutes, ornaments, lighting fixtures and
other articles having hollowness inside the cast product.
 PRESSURE DIE CASTING
• Unlike permanent mold or gravity die casting, molten
metal is forced into metallic mold or die under pressure
in pressure die casting. The pressure is generally
created by compressed air or hydraulically means. The
pressure varies from 70 to 5000 kg/cm2 and is
maintained while the casting solidifies. The application
of high pressure is associated with the high velocity
with which the liquid metal is injected into the die to
provide a unique capacity for the production of intricate
components at a relatively low cost. This process is
called simply die casting in USA.
 Hot chamber die-casting
• Hot chamber die-casting machine is the oldest of die-casting machines which
is simplest to operate. It can produce about 60 or more castings of up to 20
kg each per hour and several hundred castings per hour for single impression
castings weighing a few grams. The melting unit of setup comprises of an
integral part of the process. The molten metal possesses nominal amount of
superheat and, therefore, less pressure is needed to force the liquid metal
into the die. This process may be of gooseneck or air-injection type or
submerged plunger type-air blown or goose neck type machine is shown as
in Fig. 13.3. It is capable of performing the following functions:
• (i) Holding two die halves finally together.
• (ii) Closing the die.
• (iii) Injecting molten metal into die.
• (iv) Opening the die.
• (v) Ejecting the casting out of the die.
 Cold chamber die casting
• Melting unit is generally not an integral part of the cold chamber die casting
machine. Molten metal is brought and poured into die casting machine with
help of ladles.
• Molten metal poured into the cold chamber casting machine is generally at
lower temperature as compared to that poured in hot chamber die casting
machine.
• For this reasoning, a cold chamber die casting process has to be made use of
pressure much higher (of the order of 200 to 2000 kgf/cm2) than those applied
in hot chamber process.
• High pressure tends to increase the fluidity of molten metal possessing relatively
lower temperature.
• Lower temperature of molten metal accompanied with higher injection pressure
with produce castings of dense structure sustained dimensional accuracy and
free from blow-holes.
• Die components experience less thermal stresses due to lower temperature of
molten metal. However, the dies are often required to be made stronger in order
to bear higher pressures.
ADVANTAGES OF DIE CASTING OVER SAND
CASTING
• Die casting requires less floor space in comparison to sand
casting.
• It helps in providing precision dimensional control with a
subsequent reduction in machining cost.
• It provides greater improved surface finish.
• Thin section of complex shape can be produced in die casting.
• More true shape can be produced with close tolerance in die
casting.
• Castings produced by die casting are usually less defective.
• It produces more sound casting than sand casting.
• It is very quick process.
• Its rate of production is high as much as 800 casting / hour.
 SHELL MOLD CASTING
• Complete shell molding casting processes is carried in four stages as shown
in Fig. 13.4. In this process a pattern is placed on a metal plate and it is
then coated with a mixture of fine sand and Phenol-resin (20:1). The
pattern is heated first and silicon grease is then sprayed on the heated
metal pattern for easy separation. The pattern is heated to 205 to 230°C
and covered with resin bounded sand. After 30 seconds, a hard layer of
sand is formed over pattern. Pattern and shell are heated and treated in an
oven at 315°C for 60 secs., Phenol resin is allowed to set to a specific
thickness. So the layer of about 4 to 10 mm in thickness is stuck on the
pattern and the loose material is then removed from the pattern. Then
shell is ready to strip from the pattern. A plate pattern is made in two or
more pieces and similarly core is made by same technique. The shells are
clamped and usually embedded in gravel, coarse sand or metal shot. Then
mold is ready for pouring. The shell so formed has the shape of pattern
formed of cavity or projection in the shell.
• Advantages
• The main advantages of shell molding are:
• Very suitable for thin sections like petrol engine cylinder.
• Excellent surface finish.
• Good dimensional accuracy of order of 0.002 to 0.003 mm.
• Negligible machining and cleaning cost.
• Occupies less floor space.
• Skill-ness required is less.
• Molds can be stored until required.
• Better quality of casting assured.
• Mass production.
• Applications
• Suitable for production of casting made up of alloys of Al, Cu
and ferrous metals, Bushing, Valves bodies, Rocker arms,
Bearing caps, Brackets, Gears
 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
• In centrifugal casting process, molten metal is poured into a
revolving mold and allowed to solidify molten metal by
pressure of centrifugal force. It is employed for mass
production of circular casting as the castings produced by
this process are free from impurities. Due to centrifugal
force, the castings produced will be of high density type and
of good strength. The castings produced promote directional
solidification as the colder metal (less temperature molten
metal) is thrown to outside of casting and molten metal near
the axis or rotation. The cylindrical parts and pipes for
handling gases are most adoptable to this process.
Centrifugal casting processes are mainly of three types which
are discussed as under.
 True Centrifugal Casting
• In true centrifugal casting process, the axis of
rotation of mold can be horizontal, vertical or
inclined. Usually it is horizontal. The most
commonly articles which are produced by this
process are cast iron pipes, liners, bushes and
cylinder barrels. This process does not require
any core. Also no gates and risers are used.
Generally pipes are made by the method of
the centrifugal casting.
 Semi-Centrifugal Casting
• It is similar to true centrifugal casting but only with a
difference that a central core is used to form the inner
surface. Semi- centrifugal casting setup is shown in Fig. This
casting process is generally used for articles which are more
complicated than those possible in true centrifugal casting,
but are axi-symmetric in nature. A particular shape of the
casting is produced by mold and core and not by centrifugal
force. The centrifugal force aids proper feeding and helps in
producing the castings free from porosity. The article
produced by this process is shown in Fig. Symmetrical objects
namely wheel having arms like flywheel, gears and back
wheels are produced by this process.
 Centrifuging Casting
• Centrifuging casting setup is shown in Fig. This
casting process is generally used for producing
non-symmetrical small castings having
intricate details. A number of such small jobs
are joined together by means of a common
radial runner with a central sprue on a table
which is possible in a vertical direction of mold
rotation.
 CONTINNOUS CASTING
• In this process the molten metal is continuously poured in to a
mold cavity around which a facility for quick cooling the molten
metal to the point of solidification. The solidified metal is then
continuously extracted from the mold at predetermined rate.
This process is classified into two categories namely Asarco and
Reciprocating. In reciprocating process, molten metal is poured
into a holding furnace. At the bottom of this furnace, there is a
valve by which the quantity of flow can be changed. The
molten metal is poured into the mold at a uniform speed. The
water cooled mold is reciprocated up and down. The solidified
portion of the casting is withdrawn by the rolls at a constant
speed. The movement of the rolls and the reciprocating
motion of the rolls are fully mechanized and properly
controlled by means of cams and follower arrangements.
• Advantages of Continuous Casting
• (i) The process is cheaper than rolling
• (ii) 100% casting yield.
• (iii) The process can be easily mechanized and thus unit labor cost
is less.
• (iv) Casting surfaces are better.
• (v) Grain size and structure of the casting can be easily controlled.
• Applications of Continuous Casting
• (i) It is used for casting materials such as brass, bronzes, zinc,
copper, aluminium and its alloys, magnesium, carbon and alloys
etc.
• (ii) Production of blooms, billets, slabs, sheets, copper bar etc.
• (iii) It can produce any shape of uniform cross-section such as
round, rectangular, square, hexagonal, fluted or gear toothed etc.
 Casting Defects
• Pinholes: also sometimes referred to
as porosities, are very tiny holes (about 2 mm)
usually found in the cope (upper) part of the
mold, in poorly vented pockets.
• They usually appear in large numbers
together, either at the surface or just below
the surface of the casting. They are always
visible to the naked eye and don’t require
equipment to identify.
 Subsurface blowhole
• Blowholes, or simply blows, are larger cavities
than pinholes.
• A subsurface blowhole appears on the inside
of a cast and usually isn’t visible until after
machining.
• Subsurface blowholes can be difficult to detect
before machining, requiring harmonic,
ultrasonic, magnetic or x-ray analysis.
 Open holes
• These blowholes appear
on the surface of the
cast and are easier to
detect than subsurface
blowholes.
 Open shrinkage defects
• These are open to the atmosphere. Air compensated as the
shrinkage cavity forms.
• Pipes are open shrinkage defects that form at the surface and
burrow into the casting. Caved surfaces are shallow, open
shrinkage defects that form across the surface of the casting.
 Closed shrinkage defects
• Also known as shrinkage porosity, closed shrinkage defects
form within the casting. Macro shrinkage can be viewed with
the naked eye, but micro shrinkage cannot. Closed shrinkage
defects usually appear at the top of hot spots, or isolated pools
of hot liquid.
• You can prevent shrinkage casting defects by improving the
overall casting structure:
• Design a running (gate) system with risers that ensure a
continuous flow of molten metal
• Increase local heat dissipation by inserting internal chills,
cooling ribs or cooling coils
• Reduce casting temperature to limit the total volume deficit
 Cuts and washes
• Cuts and washes are areas of excess metal. These appear when
the molten metal erodes the molding sand.
• A cut appears as a low projection along the surface of the drag
face, decreasing in height as it extends from one side of the
casting to the other.
• Causes and prevention of cuts and washes
• Cuts and washes can be caused by molten metal flowing at
a high velocity, causing too much metal to flow through the gate.
• You can prevent cuts and washes easiest by:
• Designing the gating system properly
• Improving mold and core strength
• Adding more binders to the facing and core sand
 Fusion
• Fusion occurs when sand grains fuse with molten
metal. It appears as a thin crust with a brittle, glassy
appearance firmly adhered to the casting.
• Causes and prevention of fusion
• Two main factors can cause fusion:
• Low refractoriness of clay or sand
• Too high pouring temperature of molten metal.
• Improving the refractoriness of the molding material
and/or reducing the pouring temperature of the
molten metal will help prevent fusion.
 Run out
• Run out is when liquid metal leaks out of the mold, leading to an
incomplete or missing casting.
• A faulty mold or flask is responsible for run out.
• Prevention of run out and incomplete castings
• To prevent this casting defect, design the casting mold with
precision. Inspect and replace any defective molds before casting.
• High temperatures can lead to excess wear and tear of the mold.
Use quality raw materials for your mold that can resist high
temperatures.
 Swells
• Swells are an enlargement of the
casting. Swells typically take on the shape of
a slight, smooth bulge on the vertical face of
castings.
• Causes and prevention of swells
• Swell is usually caused by improper or soft
ramming of the mold or a low strength
mold.
• Molds should be built to withstand liquid
metal pressure. Otherwise, the mold wall
may give way or move back, causing
swelling.
• Using a strong, properly rammed mold
prevents swells.
 Drops
• Drops occur when pieces of sand fall into metal casting when it’s still liquid.
Drops appear as an irregularly shaped projection on the cope (top) surface
of a casting.
• Causes and prevention of drops
• Four potential causes for drops and their preventions include:
• Low sand strength: Use sand of a higher strength if this your culprit
• Soft ramming: Provide harder ramming
• Insufficient fluxing of molten metal: Properly fluxing molten metal removes
impurities
• Insufficient reinforcement of sand projections in the cope: Reinforce sand
projections using nails or gaggers to fix this issue
 Rat tails, veins and buckles
• Rat tails, or veins, appear as an irregular line or crack on the casting,
when the surface of the molding sand buckles up. Rat tails usually occur
on the surface of the mold bottom, an area covered with molten material.
• Buckles are a more severe form of rat tails.
• Causes and prevention of rat tails and buckles
• Rat tails and buckles occur when excessive heat of the metal causes the
sand to expand. This may be caused by:
• Poor expansion properties of the sand: Add combustible additives to
sand.
• A hot pouring temperature: Reduce pouring temperature of metal.
• Poor mold design: Large and flat sections are more prone to rat tails.
The mold also should not be too hard, as it must allow for proper
expansion.
 Metal penetration
• Metal penetration occurs when liquid metal penetrates
gaps in the molding sand. The penetration is visible to the
naked eye as a rough and uneven surface finish of the casting.
• Causes and prevention of metal penetration
• Use of sand with low strength and high permeability
• Use of large or coarse sand grain: the coarser the sand grains,
the more severe the metal penetration
• Lack of mold wash
• Soft ramming of sand
• Prevent metal penetration by fixing these areas. Use high
strength, small grain size, low permeability and hard ramming
of sand. Ensure a protective barrier against metal penetration
by coating the surface of molds with a mold wash.
 Hot tear/crack
• Cracks appear in the form of irregular crevices in a branched
pattern.
• Some cracks are obvious and easily seen, while others can
require magnification.
• Cracks occur as the casting cools, towards the end of
solidification.
• Causes and prevention of hot tears and cracks
• If the solidifying metal does not have sufficient strength to resist
tensile forces during solidification, hot tears will appear.
• Hot tears are mostly caused by poor mold design. Modifying the
mold to improve collapsibility can easily resolve these issues.
 Hot/hard spots
• Hot spots are spots that are harder than the surrounding
area. This is because they cooled more quickly than the
surrounding material.
• Hard spots can interfere with machining and increase tool
wear.
• Causes and prevention of hot spots
• Hot spots are a direct result of improper cooling practices.
There are two potential solutions if hot spots are your
problem:
• Start by correcting cooling practice
• Also consider changing the metal’s chemical composition
 Cold shut/lap
• Cold shut is a type of surface defect. You’ll see a line or crack with a round edge on
the casting surface.
• This defect is visible to the naked eye and often results in rejecting the cast, as it
creates a weak spot.
• Causes and prevention of cold shut
• When molten metal enters the mold from two gates, the streams will meet at a
junction. Low temperatures can prevent fusion at the junction, causing the streams
to solidify before fusion, creating a cold shut.
• Cold shut is usually a result of a lack of fluidity of the molten metal, or a poor design
of the gating system.
• The best way to prevent cold shuts is to increase fluidity of the molten metal. This
can be done in a few ways:
• Optimize gating system to minimize narrow cross-paths and ensure short flow paths
• Increase the pouring temperature to prevent premature solidification
• Improve gas permeability of the mold (through coarser grain size, etc.)
 Misruns
• Misruns are closely related to cold shuts
• Misruns occur when the liquid metal is too cold to flow to the
extremities of the mold cavity before freezing and solidifying.
• The liquid metal does not completely fill the mold cavity. The
misrun is the unfilled portion or space in the mold.
• Causes and prevention of misruns
• The reasons for premature solidification are similar to those
for cold shut. If you have a misrun, check:
• Mold design
• Gating system design and
• Molten metal fluidity
 Cold shots
• Splattering during pouring of a liquid can cause solid
globules to form.
• As these globules freeze, they become entrapped in the
casting.
• Cold shots are typically ball, drop or pearl shaped and
loosely attached to the metal.
• Causes and prevention of cold shots
• To prevent splattering and cold shots, consider
• Modifying pouring procedures to minimize turbulence
• Adjusting gating system designs to reduce gate speed
 MOLDING SAND
• The general sources of receiving molding sands are the beds of
sea, rivers, lakes, granulular elements of rocks, and deserts.
The common sources of molding sands available in India are
• as follows:
• 1 Batala sand ( Punjab)
• 2 Ganges sand (Uttar Pradesh)
• 3 Oyaria sand (Bihar)
• 4 Damodar and Barakar sands (Bengal- Bihar Border)
• 5 Londha sand (Bombay)
• 6 Gigatamannu sand (Andhra Pradesh) and
• 7 Avadi and Veeriyambakam sand (Madras)
• Molding sands may be of two types namely
natural or synthetic. Natural molding sands
contain sufficient binder. Whereas synthetic
molding sands are prepared artificially using
basic sand molding constituents (silica sand in
88-92%, binder 6-12%, water or moisture
content 3-6%) and other additives in proper
proportion by weight with perfect mixing and
mulling in suitable equipments.
 CONSTITUENTS OF MOLDING SAND
• The main constituents of molding sand involve
silica sand,
• binder,
• moisture content and
• additives.
 Silica sand
• Silica sand in form of granular quarts is the main constituent of
molding sand having enough refractoriness which can impart
strength, stability and permeability to molding and core sand.
• But along with silica small amounts of iron oxide, alumina, lime
stone, magnesia, soda and potash are present as impurities. The
chemical composition of silica sand gives an idea of the impurities
like lime, magnesia, alkalis etc. present. The presence of excessive
amounts of iron oxide, alkali oxides and lime can lower the fusion
point to a considerable extent which is undesirable.
• The silica sand can be specified according to the size (small,
medium and large silica sand grain) and the shape (angular, sub-
angular and rounded).
 Binder
• In general, the binders can be either inorganic or organic
substance. The inorganic group includes clay sodium silicate
and port land cement etc. In foundry shop, the clay acts as
binder which may be Kaolonite, Ball Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite,
Fuller’s earth and Bentonite. Binders included in the organic
group are dextrin, molasses, cereal binders, linseed oil and
resins like phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde etc.
Organic binders are mostly used for core making. Among all
the above binders, the bentonite variety of clay is the most
common. However, this clay alone can not develop bonds
among sand grins without the presence of moisture in
molding sand and core sand.
 Moisture
• The amount of moisture content in the molding sand varies
generally between 2 to 8 percent. This amount is added to the
mixture of clay and silica sand for developing bonds. This is the
amount of water required to fill the pores between the particles of
clay without separating them. This amount of water is held rigidly
by the clay and is mainly responsible for developing the strength in
the sand. The effect of clay and water decreases permeability with
increasing clay and moisture content. The green compressive
strength first increases with the increase in clay content, but after a
certain value, it starts decreasing.
• For increasing the molding sand characteristics some other
additional materials besides basic constituents are added which are
known as additives.
 Additives
• Additives are the materials generally added to the
molding and core sand mixture to develop some special
property in the sand. Some common used additives for
enhancing the properties of molding and core sands are
discussed as under.
• Coal dust
• Coal dust is added mainly for producing a reducing
atmosphere during casting. This reducing atmosphere
results in any oxygen in the poles becoming chemically
bound so that it cannot oxidize the metal. It is usually
added in the molding sands for making molds for
production of grey iron and malleable cast iron castings.
• Corn flour
• It belongs to the starch family of carbohydrates and is used to increase the
collapsibility of the molding and core sand. It is completely volatilized by
heat in the mould, thereby leaving space between the sand grains. This
allows free movement of sand grains, which finally gives rise to mould wall
movement and decreases the mold expansion and hence defects in castings.
Corn sand if added to molding sand and core sand improves significantly
strength of the mold and core.
• Dextrin
• Dextrin belongs to starch family of carbohydrates that behaves also in a
manner similar to that of the corn flour. It increases dry strength of the
molds.
• Sea coal
• Sea coal is the fine powdered bituminous coal which positions its place
among the pores of the silica sand grains in molding sand and core sand.
When heated, it changes to coke which fills the pores and is unaffected by
water: Because to this, the sand grains become restricted and cannot move
into a dense packing pattern. Thus, sea coal reduces the mould wall
movement and the permeability in mold and core sand and hence makes
the mold and core surface clean and smooth.
• Pitch
• It is distilled form of soft coal. It can be added from 0.02 % to 2% in
mold and core sand. It enhances hot strengths, surface finish on mold
surfaces and behaves exactly in a manner similar to that of sea coal.
• Wood flour
• This is a fibrous material mixed with a granular material like sand; its
relatively long thin fibers prevent the sand grains from making contact
with one another. It can be added from 0.05 % to 2% in mold and core
sand. It volatilizes when heated, thus allowing the sand grains room to
expand. It will increase mould wall movement and decrease expansion
defects. It also increases collapsibility of both of mold and core.
• Silica flour
• It is called as pulverized silica and it can be easily added up to 3%
which increases the hot strength and finish on the surfaces of the
molds and cores. It also reduces metal penetration in the walls of the
molds and cores.
 TYPES OF MOULDING SAND
• Green sand
• Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand
which is a just prepared mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30
percent clay, having moisture content from 6 to 8%. The clay
and water furnish the bond for green sand. It is fine, soft,
light, and porous. Green sand is damp, when squeezed in
the hand and it retains the shape and the impression to give
to it under pressure. Molds prepared by this sand are not
requiring backing and hence are known as green sand
molds. This sand is easily available and it possesses low
cost. It is commonly employed for production of ferrous and
non-ferrous castings.
 Dry sand
• Green sand that has been dried or baked in
suitable oven after the making mold and
cores, is called dry sand. It possesses more
strength, rigidity and thermal stability. It is
mainly suitable for larger castings. Mold
prepared in this sand are known as dry sand
molds.
 Loam sand
• Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to
a thin plastic paste. Loam sand possesses high
clay as much as 30-50% and 18% water.
Patterns are not used for loam molding and
shape is given to mold by sweeps. This is
particularly employed for loam molding used
for large grey iron castings.
 Facing sand
• Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mould. It
is directly next to the surface of the pattern and it comes into
contact molten metal when the mould is poured. Initial coating
around the pattern and hence for mold surface is given by this
sand. This sand is subjected severest conditions and must
possess, therefore, high strength refractoriness. It is made of
silica sand and clay, without the use of used sand. Different
forms of carbon are used to prevent the metal burning into the
sand. A facing sand mixture for green sand of cast iron may
consist of 25% fresh and specially prepared and 5% sea coal.
They are sometimes mixed with 6-15 times as much fine
molding sand to make facings. The layer of facing sand in a mold
usually ranges from 22-28 mm. From 10 to 15% of the whole
amount of molding sand is the facing sand.
 Backing sand
• Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up
the facing sand and is used to fill the whole
volume of the molding flask. Used molding
sand is mainly employed for this purpose. The
backing sand is sometimes called black sand
because that old, repeatedly used molding
sand is black in color due to addition of coal
dust and burning on coming in contact with
the molten metal.
 System sand
• In mechanized foundries where machine molding is
employed. A so-called system sand is used to fill the
whole molding flask. In mechanical sand preparation
and handling units, no facing sand is used. The used
sand is cleaned and re-activated by the addition of
water and special additives. This is known as system
sand. Since the whole mold is made of this system
sand, the properties such as strength, permeability
and refractoriness of the molding sand must be
higher than those of backing sand.
 Parting sand
• Parting sand without binder and moisture is
used to keep the green sand not to stick to the
pattern and also to allow the sand on the
parting surface the cope and drag to separate
without clinging. This is clean clay-free silica
sand which serves the same purpose as
parting dust.
 Core sand
• Core sand is used for making cores and it is
sometimes also known as oil sand. This is
highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders
such as core oil which composed of linseed oil,
resin, light mineral oil and other bind
materials. Pitch or flours and water may also
be used in large cores for the sake of
economy.
PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND
• Refractoriness
• Refractoriness is defined as the ability of molding sand to
withstand high temperatures without breaking down or fusing
thus facilitating to get sound casting. It is a highly important
characteristic of molding sands. Refractoriness can only be
increased to a limited extent. Molding sand with poor
refractoriness may burn on to the casting surface and no smooth
casting surface can be obtained. The degree of refractoriness
depends on the SiO2 i.e. quartz content, and the shape and grain
size of the particle. The higher the SiO2 content and the rougher
the grain volumetric composition the higher is the refractoriness
of the molding sand and core sand. Refractoriness is measured by
the sinter point of the sand rather than itsmelting point.
 Permeability
• It is also termed as porosity of the molding sand in
order to allow the escape of any air, gases or moisture
present or generated in the mould when the molten
metal is poured into it. All these gaseous generated
during pouring and solidification process must escape
otherwise the casting becomes defective. Permeability
is a function of grain size, grain shape, and moisture
and clay contents in the molding sand. The extent of
ramming of the sand directly affects the permeability of
the mould. Permeability of mold can be further
increased by venting using vent rods
 Cohesiveness
• It is property of molding sand by virtue which
the sand grain particles interact and attract
each other within the molding sand. Thus, the
binding capability of the molding sand gets
enhanced to increase the green, dry and hot
strength property of molding and core sand.
 Green strength
• The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have
sufficient strength and toughness to permit the making and
handling of the mould. For this, the sand grains must be
adhesive, i.e. thev must be capable of attaching themselves to
another body and. therefore, and sand grains having high
adhesiveness will cling to the sides of the molding box. Also, the
sand grains must have the property known as cohesiveness i.e.
ability of the sand grains to stick to one another. By virtue of this
property, the pattern can be taken out from the mould without
breaking the mould and also the erosion of mould wall surfaces
does not occur during the flow of molten metal. The green
strength also depends upon the grain shape and size, amount
and type of clay and the moisture content.
 Dry strength
• As soon as the molten metal is poured into the
mould, the moisture in the sand layer adjacent
to the hot metal gets evaporated and this dry
sand layer must have sufficient strength to its
shape in order to avoid erosion of mould wall
during the flow of molten metal. The dry
strength also prevents the enlargement of
mould cavity cause by the metallostatic
pressure of the liquid metal.
 Flowability or plasticity
• It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and
behave like a fluid. It will flow uniformly to all
portions of pattern when rammed and distribute
the ramming pressure evenly all around in all
directions. Generally sand particles resist moving
around corners or projections. In general,
flowability increases with decrease in green
strength, an, decrease in grain size. The
flowability also varies with moisture and clay
content.
 Adhesiveness
• It is property of molding sand to get stick or
adhere with foreign material such sticking of
molding sand with inner wall of molding box
 Collapsibility
• After the molten metal in the mould gets
solidified, the sand mould must be collapsible
so that free contraction of the metal occurs
and this would naturally avoid the tearing or
cracking of the contracting metal. In absence
of this property the contraction of the metal is
hindered by the mold and thus results in tears
and cracks in the casting. This property is
highly desired in cores
 Miscellaneous properties
• In addition to above requirements, the
molding sand should not stick to the casting
and should not chemically react with the
metal. Molding sand should be cheap and
easily available. It should be reusable for
economic reasons. Its coefficients of
expansion should be sufficiently low.