0

Chapter 9 Patterns of Inheritance

PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology: Concepts & Connections, Sixth Edition
Campbell, Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey

Lecture by Mary C. Colavito

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview: Drawing from the Deck of Genes

• What genetic principles account for the passing

of traits from parents to offspring?

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

9.1 The science of genetics has ancient roots 0

 Pangenesis was an early explanation for inheritance

– It was proposed by Hippocrates
– Particles called pangenes came from all parts of
the organism to be incorporated into eggs or
sperm
– Characteristics acquired during the parents’
lifetime could be transferred to the offspring
– Aristotle rejected pangenesis and argued that
instead of particles, the potential to produce the
traits was inherited
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 The “blending” hypothesis based on plant breeding

– Hereditary material from parents mixes

together to form an intermediate trait, like
mixing paint
– (like blue and yellow paint blend to make
green)
 Mendel documented a particulate mechanism
through his experiments with garden peas
Mendel used the scientific approach to identify
two laws of inheritance

 Mendel discovered the basic principles of

heredity by breeding garden peas in carefully
planned experiments
 Mendel showed that parents pass heritable factors
to offspring (heritable factors are now called
genes)

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 14-1
Figure 9.2A Gregor Mendel.
 Petal

Stamen

Carpel

Figure 9.2B Anatomy of a garden pea flower (with one petal removed to improve
visibility).
Mendel’s Experimental, Quantitative Approach

• Advantages of pea plants for genetic study:

– There are many varieties with distinct heritable
features, or characters (such as flower color);
character variants (such as purple or white flowers) are
called traits
– Mating of plants can be controlled
– Each pea plant has sperm-producing organs (stamens)
and egg-producing organs (carpels)
– True-breeding strains when self-pollinated (plants that
produce offspring of the same variety when they self-
pollinate)

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

– Cross-pollination (fertilization between different plants)
can be achieved by dusting one plant with pollen from
another
TECHNIQUE
1

Parental
generation
(P) Stamens
Carpel
3

RESULTS
First 5
filial
gener-
ation
offspring
(F1)
Fig. 14-2a

TECHNIQUE
1

Parental
generation
(P) Stamens
Carpel
3

4
Fig. 14-2b

RESULTS
First 5
filial
generation
offspring
(F1)
What is pollination?

– It is the transfer of pollen from anther to stigma.

– It is usually followed by fertilization of the eggs

by the sperm nuclei.

– Seeds, then developed from the fertilized egg.

What is self-pollination?

– Occurs when pollen is transferred from anther to

stigma in the same flower or in flower of same
plant.
– In self-pollination, both the male and female
gametes are found in the same flower and
produced an offspring. The sexual structures of
the plants are entirely enclosed by petals.

What is cross-pollination?

– In cross-pollination male and female gametes

that produced an offspring come from different
flowers.

– Pollen is transferred from the anther of one plant

to the stigma of another plant.
 0
White
1 Removed
stamens from
purple flower

Stamens
Carpel 2 Transferred
Parents pollen from stamens of white
Purple
(P) flower to carpel of purple flower
 0
White
1 Removed
stamens from
purple flower

Stamens
Carpel 2 Transferred
Parents pollen from stamens of white
Purple
(P) flower to carpel of purple flower

3 Pollinated carpel
matured into pod
 0
White
1 Removed
stamens from
purple flower

Stamens
Carpel 2 Transferred
Parents pollen from stamens of white
Purple
(P) flower to carpel of purple flower

3 Pollinated carpel
matured into pod

4 Planted seeds
from pod

Offspring
(F1)
Figure 9.2C Mendel’s technique
for cross-fertilization of pea
plants.
 0

Flower color Purple White

Flower position Axial Terminal

Seed color Yellow Green

Seed shape Round Wrinkled

Pod shape Inflated Constricted

Pod color Green Yellow

Stem length Tall Dwarf

• In a typical experiment, Mendel mated two
contrasting, true-breeding varieties, a process
called hybridization
• The true-breeding parents are the P
generation
• The hybrid offspring of the P generation are
called the F1 generation

• When F1 individuals self-pollinate, the F2

generation is produced
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
 Monohybrid cross
 It is an experimental mating of individuals differing
at one gene locus.
 A cross between individuals differing only in one
trait.
9.3 Mendel’s law of segregation describes the 0

inheritance of a single character

 Example of a monohybrid cross
– Parental generation: purple flowers  white flowers

– F1 generation: all plants with purple flowers

– F2 generation: 3/4 of plants with purple flowers

1/4of plants with white flowers

 Mendel needed to explain

– Why one trait seemed to disappear in the F1
generation

– Why that trait reappeared in one quarter of the F2

offspring
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P generation 0
(true-breeding
parents)
Purple flowers White flowers
P generation 0
(true-breeding
parents)
Purple flowers White flowers

F1 generation All plants have

purple flowers
P generation 0
(true-breeding
parents)
Purple flowers White flowers

F1 generation All plants have

purple flowers

Fertilization
among F1 plants
(F1  F1)

F2 generation

3 1
–
4 of plants – of
4 plants
have purple flowers have white flowers
9.3 Mendel’s law of segregation describes the 0

inheritance of a single character

 Four Hypotheses
1. Genes are found in alternative versions called
alleles; a genotype is the listing of alleles an
individual carries for a specific gene
• For example, the gene for flower color in pea plants
exists in two versions, one for purple flowers and the
other for white flowers
• These alternative versions of a gene are now called
alleles

• Each gene resides at a specific locus on a

specific chromosome
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Fig. 14-4

Allele for purple flowers

Homologous
Locus for flower-color gene pair of
chromosomes

Allele for white flowers

 9.3 Mendel’s law of segregation describes the
inheritance of a single character
 Four Hypotheses
2. For each characteristic, an organism inherits two
alleles, one from each parent; the alleles can be the
same or different

- A homozygous genotype has identical alleles

- A heterozygous genotype has two different

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

9.3 Mendel’s law of segregation describes the 0

inheritance of a single character

 Four Hypotheses
3. If the alleles differ, the dominant allele determines
the organism’s appearance, and the recessive allele
has no noticeable effect
– The phenotype is the appearance or expression of a trait

– The same phenotype may be determined by more than

one genotype

4. Law of segregation: Allele pairs separate

(segregate) from each other during the production of
gametes so that a sperm or egg carries only one
allele for each gene

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• Thus, an egg or a sperm gets only one of the two
alleles that are present in the somatic cells of an
organism
• This segregation of alleles corresponds to the
distribution of homologous chromosomes to
different gametes in meiosis
• Mendel’s segregation model accounts for the 3:1
ratio he observed in the F2 generation of his
numerous crosses
• The possible combinations of sperm and egg can be
shown using a Punnett square, a diagram for
predicting the results of a genetic cross between
individuals of known genetic makeup
• A capital letter represents a dominant allele, and a
lowercase letter represents a recessive allele
 Genetic makeup (alleles)
P plants 0
PP pp

Gametes All P All p

F1 plants All Pp
(hybrids)

1 1
Gametes –
2 P –
2 p

Sperm
P p

F2 plants Phenotypic ratio P PP Pp

3 purple : 1 white
Eggs
Genotypic ratio
1 PP : 2 Pp : 1 pp p Pp pp
Law of segregation
• During meiosis, homologous pairs of chromosomes
(and the genes that compose them) separate from
one another and are packaged into separate
gametes.
• At fertilization, gametes combine at random to form
the individuals of a new generation.
Law of segregation: the monohybrid cross

Two heterozygous parents produce

gametes
with T or t allele equally frequently.

Offspring genotypes 1/4 TT : 1/2 Tt : 1/4

tt Offspring phenotypes 3/4 tall : 1/4
9.4 Homologous chromosomes bear the alleles 0

for each character

 For a pair of homologous chromosomes, alleles of
a gene reside at the same locus
– Homozygous individuals have the same allele on both
homologues
– Heterozygous individuals have a different allele on
each homologue

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 0

Gene loci Dominant

allele
P a B

P a b
Recessive
allele
Genotype: PP aa Bb
Homozygous Homozygous Heterozygous
for the for the
dominant allele recessive allele
Steps in Solving genetic problems

1. List all possible genotypes and phenotypes for the

trait.

2. Determine the genotypes of the individuals in the

first (P1) generation.

3. After determining the genotypes, determine the

possible alleles in gametes produced by each
individual in the cross.

4. Unite these gametes in all combinations, using a

Punnett square if necessary, to reveal all possible
genotypes. Calculate ratios for the first generation
of offspring (F1).
 5. To extend predictions to the second offspring (F2)
generation, use the genotypes of the specified F1
individuals and repeat steps 3 and 4.
Sample Problem

Wendy has a beautiful curls, and her husband

Rick has a straight hair. Wendy’s father is
bald, but once had a curly hair, and her
mother has stick-straight hair. What is the
probability that Wendy and Rick’s child will
have a straight hair?
Step 1. State possible genotypes.

CC, Cc ----- curly cc ---- straight

Step 2. Determine genotypes.

cc --- Rick (because her hair is straight)

Cc --- Wendy (because her mother gave her a c allele)

Step 3. Determine gametes.

Rick’s sperm carry only c

Half of wendy’s oocytes carry C, and half carry c.

P (Wendy) Cc x cc (Rick)

Gametes 1/2 C , ½ c c

F1 p½ Cc and ½ cc
Step 5. Conclusion

Each child of Wendy and Rick has 50 percent chance of

having curly hair (Cc) and 50 a percent chance of having
straight hair (cc).
Sample Problem

A man who is homozygous dominant for

unattached earlobes marries a homozygous
woman for attached earlobes. What type of
earlobes will the children have?
 Sample problem

If a trait G is dominant to trait g, give the ratio of

individuals exhibiting trait G to individuals exhibiting
trait g if the following cross happens: Gg x gg


9.6 Geneticists use the testcross to determine 0

unknown genotypes
 Testcross
– Mating between an individual of unknown
genotype and a homozygous recessive
individual
– Will show whether the unknown genotype
includes a recessive allele
– Used by Mendel to confirm true-breeding
genotypes

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Devise used by Mendel to determine the genotype
of an unknown individual with a dominant
phenotype, which is still being used today in
breeding procedures of plants and animals.
 0

Testcross:

Genotypes B_ bb

Two possibilities for the black dog:

BB or Bb

Gametes B B b

b Bb b Bb bb

Offspring All black 1 black : 1 chocolate

9.5 The law of independent assortment is 0

revealed by tracking two characters at once

 Example of a dihybrid cross
– Parental generation: round yellow seeds  wrinkled green
seeds
– F1 generation: all plants with round yellow seeds
– F2 generation: 9/16 of plants with round yellow seeds
3/16 of plants with round green seeds
3/16 of plants with wrinkled yellow
seeds 1/16
of plants with wrinkled green
seeds
 Mendel needed to explain
– Why nonparental combinations were observed
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9.5 The law of independent assortment is 0

revealed by tracking two characters at once

 Law of independent assortment
– Each pair of alleles segregates independently of the
other pairs of alleles during gamete formation

– For genotype RrYy, four gamete types are possible:

RY, Ry, rY, and ry

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Using a dihybrid cross, Mendel developed
the law of independent assortment

The law of independent assortment

states that each pair of alleles segregates
independently of each other pair of alleles
during gamete formation

Strictly speaking, this law applies only to

genes on different, nonhomologous
chromosomes

Genes located near each other on the

same chromosome tend to be inherited
together
 Hypothesis: Dependent assortment Hypothesis: Independent assortment 0

P RRYY rryy RRYY rryy

generation

Gametes RY ry Gametes RY ry

F1 RrYy RrYy
generation

Sperm Sperm
1 1 1 1
–
4 RY –
4 rY –
4 Ry –
4 ry
1 1
–
2 RY –
2 ry
1
F2 –
4 RY
1
generation –
2 RY RRYY RrYY RRYy RrYy
Eggs 1
– rY
1 4
–
2 ry RrYY rrYY RrYy rrYy
Eggs
1 9 Yellow
––
–
4 Ry 16 round
RRYy RrYy RRyy Rryy
3
––
Green
16 round
1
Hypothesized –
4 ry
3 Yellow
(not actually seen) RrYy rrYy Rryy rryy ––
16
wrinkled
Actual results 1
–– Green
(support hypothesis) 16
wrinkled
 0

Blind Blind

Phenotypes Black coat, normal vision Black coat, blind (PRA) Chocolate coat, normal vision Chocolate coat, blind (PRA)
Genotypes B_N_ B_nn bbN_ bbnn

Mating of heterozygotes BbNn BbNn

(black, normal vision)

Phenotypic ratio 9 black coat, 3 black coat, 3 chocolate coat, 1 chocolate coat,
of offspring normal vision blind (PRA) normal vision blind (PRA)
9.7 Mendel’s laws reflect the rules of probability0

– Mendel’s laws of segregation and independent

assortment reflect the rules of probability
– The probability of a specific event is the
number of ways that event can occur out of the
total possible outcomes.
– When tossing a coin, the outcome of one toss
has no impact on the outcome of the next toss
– In the same way, the alleles of one gene
segregate into gametes independently of another
gene’s alleles
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 The Multiplication and Addition Rules Applied to
Monohybrid Crosses
 Rule of multiplication
Multiply the probabilities of events that must occur together

– The multiplication rule states that the probability that two or

more independent events will occur together is the product
of their individual probabilities

– Probability in an F1 monohybrid cross can be determined

using the multiplication rule

– Segregation in a heterozygous plant is like flipping a coin:

Each gamete has a 1/2 chance of carrying the dominant
allele and a 1/2 chance of carrying the recessive allele
F1 genotypes Bb male
0
Formation of sperm

Bb female

Formation of eggs

1 1
–
2 B –
2 b

B B B b
1
–
2 B
1
– 1
–
4 4

1 b B b b
–
2 b
1
– 1
–
4 4

F2 genotypes
9.7 Mendel’s laws reflect the rules of probability0

 Rule of addition
Add probabilities of events that can happen in
alternate ways
The
- rule of addition states that the probability that any one of
two or more exclusive events will occur is calculated by
adding together their individual probabilities

- The rule of addition can be used to figure out the

probability that an F2 plant from a monohybrid cross will
be heterozygous rather than homozygous

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9.8 CONNECTION: Genetic traits in humans can
0

be tracked through family pedigrees

 A pedigree
– Shows the inheritance of a trait in a family through
multiple generations

– Demonstrates dominant or recessive inheritance

– Can also be used to deduce genotypes of family

members

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Dominant Traits Recessive Traits 0

Freckles No freckles

Widow’s peak Straight hairline

Free earlobe Attached earlobe

 0

Freckles No freckles
 0

Widow’s peak Straight hairline

 0

Free earlobe Attached earlobe

 0
First generation
(grandparents) Ff Ff ff Ff

Second generation
(parents, aunts,
and uncles) FF ff ff Ff Ff ff
or
Ff
Third generation
(two sisters)

ff FF
or
Female Male Ff
Affected
Unaffected
9.9 CONNECTION: Many inherited disorders in 0

humans are controlled by a single gene

 Inherited human disorders show
– Recessive inheritance
– Two recessive alleles are needed to show disease

– Heterozygous parents are carriers of the disease-causing

allele

– Probability of inheritance increases with inbreeding,

mating between close relatives

– Dominant inheritance
– One dominant allele is needed to show disease

– Dominant lethal alleles are usually eliminated from the

population
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 0

Figure 9.9B Dr. Michael C.

Ain, a specialist in the
repair of bone defects
caused by achondroplasia
and related disorders.

This physician is afflicted

with a dominant inherited
disease, achondroplasia.
 0
Parents Normal Normal
Dd  Dd

Sperm
D d

Dd
DD
D Normal
Normal
(carrier)
Offspring Eggs
Dd dd
d Normal Deaf
(carrier)
0
0
9.10 CONNECTION: New technologies can 0

provide insight into one’s genetic legacy

 Genetic testing of parents
 Fetal testing: biochemical and karyotype analyses
– Amniocentesis
– Chorionic villus sampling

 Maternal blood test

 Fetal imaging
– Ultrasound
– Fetoscopy

 Newborn screening Video: Ultrasound of Human Fetus

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 Amniocentesis Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
0

Ultrasound Needle inserted Ultrasound Suction tube inserted

monitor through abdomen to monitor through cervix to extract
extract amniotic fluid tissue from chorionic villi

Fetus
Fetus
Placenta Placenta
Chorionic
Uterus villi
Cervix Cervix
Uterus

Amniotic Centrifugation
fluid
Fetal Fetal
cells cells

Biochemical
tests
Several Several
weeks hours

Karyotyping
0
0
0
 VARIATIONS ON MENDEL’S
LAWS

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9.11 Incomplete dominance results in 0

intermediate phenotypes
 Incomplete dominance
– Neither allele is dominant over the other

– Expression of both alleles is observed as an

intermediate phenotype in the heterozygous
individual

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

P generation
0
Red White
RR rr

Gametes R r

F1 generation
Pink
Rr

1
– 1
Gametes R – r
2 2

Sperm
1 1
–
2 R –
2
r

F2 generation 1
– R RR rR
2
Eggs
1 Rr rr
–
2
r
 0

Genotypes:
HH Hh hh
Homozygous Heterozygous Homozygous
for ability to make for inability to make
LDL receptors LDL receptors

Phenotypes:
LDL

LDL
receptor

Cell
Normal Mild disease Severe disease
9.12 Many genes have more than two alleles in 0

the population
 Multiple alleles
– More than two alleles are found in the population

– A diploid individual can carry any two of these alleles

– The ABO blood group has three alleles, leading to four

phenotypes: type A, type B, type AB, and type O
blood

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9.12 Many genes have more than two alleles in 0

the population
 Codominance
– Neither allele is dominant over the other

– Expression of both alleles is observed as a distinct

phenotype in the heterozygous individual

– Observed for type AB blood

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9.12 Many genes have more than two alleles in 0

the population
 Codominance

Example: ABO Blood Groups

 Blood types are determined by the patterns of

cell surface on RBCs.

 Most of these molecules are proteins embedded

in the plasma membrane with attached sugars
(antigens) that extend from the cell surface.

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9.12 Many genes have more than two alleles in 0

the population
 Antigen is the molecule that is recognized by
the immune system.

 In the past, ABO blood types have been

described as variants of a gene called “I”
(isoagglutinin).

 The older I system is easier to understand.


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 0

Blood Antibodies Reaction When Blood from Groups Below Is Mixed

Group Present in with Antibodies from Groups at Left
(Phenotype) Genotypes Red Blood Cells Blood
O A B AB

O ii Anti-A
Anti-B

IAIA
A or Carbohydrate A Anti-B
IAi

IBIB
B or Carbohydrate B Anti-A
IBi

AB IAIB —
Blood 0
Group
(Phenotype) Genotypes Red Blood Cells

O ii

IAIA
A or Carbohydrate A
IAi

IBIB
B or Carbohydrate B
IBi

AB IAIB
 0
Blood Antibodies Reaction When Blood from Groups Below Is Mixed
Group Present in with Antibodies from Groups at Left
(Phenotype) Blood
O A B AB

O Anti-A
Anti-B

A Anti-B

B Anti-A

AB —
9.13 A single gene may affect many phenotypic 0
characters
 Pleiotropy
– One gene influencing many characteristics

– The gene for sickle cell disease

– Affects the type of hemoglobin produced

– Affects the shape of red blood cells

– Causes anemia

– Causes organ damage

– Is related to susceptibility to malaria

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 Individual homozygous
for sickle-cell allele 0

Sickle-cell (abnormal) hemoglobin

Abnormal hemoglobin crystallizes,

causing red blood cells to become sickle-shaped

Sickle cells

Clumping of cells
Breakdown of Accumulation of
and clogging of
red blood cells sickled cells in spleen
small blood vessels

Physical Anemia Heart Pain and Brain Damage to Spleen

weakness failure fever damage other organs damage

Impaired Pneumonia Kidney

mental Paralysis and other Rheumatism
failure
function infections
9.14 A single character may be influenced by 0

many genes
 Polygenic inheritance
– Many genes influence one trait

– Skin color is affected by at least three genes

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P generation
0
aabbcc AABBCC
(very light) (very dark)

F1 generation

AaBbCc AaBbCc

Sperm
1
– 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
– – – – – – –
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
F2 generation
1
–
8
1
–
8
1
–
8 20
––
64
1
–
8
Eggs
1

Fraction of population
– 15
8 ––
64
1
–
8
1
–
8
1
–
8
6
––
64

1
––
64
1 6 15 20
–– 15 6
–– 1
––
–– –– –– –– Skin color
64 64 64 64 64 64 64
P generation
0
aabbcc AABBCC
(very light) (very dark)

F1 generation
AaBbCc AaBbCc

Sperm
1
– 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
– – – – – – –
F2 generation 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

1
–
8

1
–
8
1
–
8

1
–
8
Eggs
1
–
8
1
–
8

1
–
8

1
–
8

1 6 15 20
–– 15 6
–– 1
––
–– –– –– ––
64 64 64 64 64 64 64
 0
20
––
64
Fraction of population

15
––
64

6
––
64

1
––
64

Skin color
9.15 The environment affects many characters 0

 Phenotypic variations are influenced by the

environment
– Skin color is affected by exposure to sunlight

– Susceptibility to diseases, such as cancer, has

hereditary and environmental components

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0
 THE CHROMOSOMAL BASIS OF
INHERITANCE

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9.16 Chromosome behavior accounts for 0

Mendel’s laws
 Mendel’s Laws correlate with chromosome
separation in meiosis
– The law of segregation depends on separation of
homologous chromosomes in anaphase I

– The law of independent assortment depends on

alternative orientations of chromosomes in
metaphase I

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 All round yellow seeds
F1 generation R (RrYy) 0
y
r
Y

R r r R

Metaphase I
y
of meiosis Y y
Y
(alternative
arrangements)
 All round yellow seeds
F1 generation R (RrYy) 0
y
r
Y

R r r R

Metaphase I
y
of meiosis Y y
Y
(alternative
arrangements)
R r r R

Anaphase I
Y y of meiosis Y y

R r r R

Metaphase II
Y y of meiosis Y y
 All round yellow seeds
F1 generation R (RrYy) 0
y
r
Y

R r r R

Metaphase I
y
of meiosis Y y
Y
(alternative
arrangements)
R r r R

Anaphase I
Y y of meiosis Y y

R r r R

Metaphase II
Y y of meiosis Y y

y
Gametes
Y Y y Y Y y y

R R r r r r R R

1 1 1
–
1 – ry – rY Ry
– RY 4 4 4
4
Fertilization among the F1 plants

F2 generation 9 :3 :3 :1
9.17 Genes on the same chromosome tend to be 0
inherited together
 Linked Genes
– Are located close together on the same chromosome
– Tend to be inherited together

 Example studied by Bateson and Punnett

– Parental generation: plants with purple flowers, long
pollen crossed to plants with red flowers, round
pollen
– The F2 generation did not show a 9:3:3:1 ratio

– Most F2 individuals had purple flowers, long pollen or

red flowers, round pollen
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Experiment

Purple flower
0

PpLl PpLl Long pollen

Observed Prediction
Phenotypes offspring (9:3:3:1)
Purple long 284 215
Purple round 21 71
Red long 21 71
Red round 55 24

Explanation: linked genes

Parental PL
diploid cell
PpLl pl

Meiosis

Most PL pl
gametes

Fertilization

Sperm
PL pl
PL PL
PL
Most PL pl
offspring Eggs
pl pl
pl
PL pl

3 purple long : 1 red round

Not accounted for: purple round and red long
 0

Experiment

Purple flower

PpLl PpLl Long pollen

Observed Prediction
Phenotypes offspring (9:3:3:1)
Purple long 284 215
Purple round 21 71
Red long 21 71
Red round 55 24
Explanation: linked genes
0
Parental PL
diploid cell
PpLl pl

Meiosis

Most PL pl
gametes

Fertilization

Sperm
PL pl
PL PL
PL
Most PL pl
offspring Eggs
pl pl
pl
PL pl

3 purple long : 1 red round

Not accounted for: purple round and red long
9.18 Crossing over produces new combinations 0
of alleles
 Linked alleles can be separated by crossing over
– Recombinant chromosomes are formed

– Thomas Hunt Morgan demonstrated this in early

experiments

– Geneticists measure genetic distance by

recombination frequency

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 0

A B A b
AB

a b a B a b
Tetrad Crossing over

Gametes
0
 Experiment
Gray body, Black body, 0
long wings vestigial wings
(wild type)

GgLl ggll

Female Male

Offspring
Gray long Black vestigial Gray vestigial Black long

965 944 206 185

Parental Recombinant
phenotypes phenotypes

Recombination frequency = 391 recombinants = 0.17 or 17%

2,300 total offspring

Explanation
GL g l
GgLl ggll
(female) (male)
g l g l

GL g l Gl gL g l

Eggs Sperm

GL g l Gl gL
g l g l g l g l

Offspring
 Experiment
0
Gray body, Black body,
long wings vestigial wings
(wild type)

GgLl ggll

Female Male

Offspring
Gray long Black vestigial Gray vestigial Black long

965 944 206 185

Parental Recombinant
phenotypes phenotypes

Recombination frequency = 391 recombinants = 0.17 or 17%

2,300 total offspring
 0

Explanation
GL gl
GgLl ggll
(female) (male)
g l gl

GL g l Gl gL gl

Eggs Sperm

GL gl Gl gL
gl gl gl gl

Offspring
9.19 Geneticists use crossover data to map genes0

 Genetic maps
– Show the order of genes on chromosomes

– Arrange genes into linkage groups representing

individual chromosomes

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 0

Chromosome
g c l

17%

9% 9.5%

Recombination
frequencies
 0
Mutant phenotypes
Short Black Cinnabar Vestigial Brown
aristae body eyes wings eyes
(g) (c) (l)

Long aristae Gray Red Normal Red

(appendages body eyes wings eyes
on head) (G) (C) (L)
Wild-type phenotypes
 SEX CHROMOSOMES AND
SEX-LINKED GENES

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9.20 Chromosomes determine sex in many 0

species
 X-Y system in mammals, fruit flies
– XX = female; XY = male

 X-O system in grasshoppers and roaches

– XX = female; XO = male

 Z-W in system in birds, butterflies, and some fishes

– ZW = female, ZZ = male

 Chromosome number in ants and bees

– Diploid = female; haploid = male

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 0

Y
 0

(male) (female)
44 Parents’ 44
+ +
XY diploid XX
cells

22 22 22
+ + +
X Y X
Sperm Egg

44 Offspring 44
+ +
XX (diploid) XY
 0

22 22
+ +
XX X
 0

76 76
+ +
ZW ZZ
 0

32 16
9.21 Sex-linked genes exhibit a unique pattern of
0

inheritance
 Sex-linked genes are located on either of the
sex chromosomes
– Reciprocal crosses show different results
– White-eyed female  red-eyed male red-eyed females
and white-eyed males
– Red-eyed female  white-eyed male red-eyed females
and red-eyed males

– X-linked genes are passed from mother to son and

mother to daughter
– X-linked genes are passed from father to daughter
– Y-linked genes are passed from father to son
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0
 Female Male 0

XR XR Xr Y

Sperm
Xr Y

Eggs XR XR Xr XR Y

R = red-eye allele
r = white-eye allele
 Female Male 0

XR Xr XR Y

Sperm
XR Y

XR XR XR XR Y
Eggs

Xr Xr XR Xr Y
 Female Male 0

XR Xr Xr Y

Sperm
Xr Y

XR XR XR XR Y
Eggs

Xr Xr Xr Xr Y
9.22 CONNECTION: Sex-linked disorders affect
0

mostly males
 Males express X-linked disorders such as the
following when recessive alleles are present in
one copy
– Hemophilia

– Colorblindness

– Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 0

Queen Albert
Victoria

Alice Louis

Alexandra Czar
Nicholas II
of Russia

Alexis
9.23 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: The Y 0

chromosome provides clues about human

male evolution
 Similarities in Y chromosome sequences
– Show a significant percentage of men related to the
same male parent

– Demonstrate a connection between people living in

distant locations

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Homologous Alleles, residing Fertilization
chromosomes at the same locus

Meiosis
Gamete Diploid zygote
from other (containing
parent paired alleles)
Paired alleles,
alternate forms
of a gene Haploid gametes
(allele pairs separate)
 Incomplete
dominance

Red White Pink

RR rr Rr
Pleiotropy
Single Multiple characters
gene

Polygenic
Multiple inheritance
Single characters
genes (such as skin color)
 Genes

located alternative
on versions called

chromosomes (a)

at specific if both same, if different,

locations called genotype called genotype called

(b) (c) heterozygous

expressed unexpressed
allele called allele called

(d) (e)

inheritance when phenotype

In between called

(f)
You should now be able to 0

– Explain and apply Mendel’s laws of segregation

and independent assortment

– Distinguish between terms in the following

groups: allele—gene; dominant—recessive;
genotype—phenotype; F1—F2; heterozygous—
homozygous; incomplete dominance—
codominance

– Explain the meaning of the terms locus, multiple

alleles, pedigree, pleiotropy, polygenic
inheritance
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
You should now be able to 0

1. Describe the difference in inheritance patterns for

linked genes and explain how recombination can
be used to estimate gene distances

2. Describe how sex is inherited in humans and

identify the pattern of inheritance observed for
sex-linked genes

3. Solve genetics problems involving monohybrid

and dihybrid crosses for autosomal and sex-
linked traits, with variations on Mendel’s laws

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.