Learning

By Fatima Safder
 Definition
• A systematic, relatively permanent change in
behavior that occur through experience is
called Learning.
 Types of learning
1. Behaviorism: A theory of learning that
focuses solely on the observable behaviors,
discounting the importance of such mental
activity as thinking, wishing and hoping.
2. Associative Learning: Learning that occurs
when an organism makes connection or an
association between two events.
3. Observational Learning: Learning that
occur through observing and imitating
another’s behavior.
 Associative Learning
• There are two types of associative learning:
1. Classical Conditioning
2. Operant Conditioning
 Classical Conditioning
• Learning process in which a neutral stimulus
becomes associated with an innately
meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity
to elicit a similar response.
• Classical conditioning basically involves
forming an association between two stimuli
resulting in a learned response.
• There are three basic phases of this process:
• 1. Before conditioning
• 2. during conditioning
• 3. after conditioning
 Phase 1: Before Conditioning
• The first part of the classical conditioning process requires a
naturally occurring stimulus that will automatically elicit a
response. E.g., Salivating in response to the smell of food is a
good example of a naturally occurring stimulus.
• During this phase of the processes, the unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) results in an unconditioned response (UCR). For
example, presenting food (the UCS) naturally and
automatically triggers a salivation response (the UCR).
• At this point, there is also a neutral stimulus that produces no
effect - yet. It isn't until this neutral stimulus is paired with the
UCS that it will come to evoke a response.
 UCS UCR
smell of food salivation

NS No response
(Bell) (no salivation)
 .
• The unconditioned stimulus is one that
unconditionally, naturally, and automatically
triggers a response.4 For example, when you smell
one of your favorite foods, you may immediately
feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the
food is the unconditioned stimulus.
• The unconditioned response is the unlearned
response that occurs naturally in response to the
unconditioned stimulus.4 In our example, the
feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food
is the unconditioned response.
 Phase 2: During Conditioning
• During the second phase of the classical
conditioning process, the previously neutral
stimulus is repeatedly paired with the
unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this
pairing, an association between the previously
neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed. At this
point, the once neutral stimulus becomes known
as the conditioned stimulus (CS). The subject has
now been conditioned to respond to this stimulus.
 UCS + NS UCR
smell bell salivation

NS CR
bell salivation
CS CR
bell salivation
 Phase 3: After Conditioning
• Once the association has been made between
the UCS and the CS, presenting the
conditioned stimulus alone will come to evoke
a response even without the unconditioned
stimulus. The resulting response is known as
the conditioned response
 UCS CR
smell salivation

CS CR
bell salivation
Key Principles of Classical Conditioning

1. Acquisition: Acquisition is the initial stage of

learning when a response is first established and
gradually strengthened. During the acquisition
phase of classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus
is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned
stimulus. After an association is made, the subject
will begin to emit a behavior in response to the
previously neutral stimulus, which is now known
as a conditioned stimulus. It is at this point that
we can say that the response has been acquired.
2. Extinction is when the . occurrences of a
conditioned response decreases or disappears.
In classical conditioning, this happens when a
conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with
an unconditioned stimulus
3. Spontaneous Recovery. Sometimes a learned
response can suddenly reemerge even after a
period of extinction. Spontaneous recovery is
the reappearance of the conditioned response
after a rest period or period of lessened
response
 .
4. Stimulus Generalization is the tendency for
the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar
responses after the response has been
conditioned. E.g., Little Albert’s experiment.
5. Stimulus Discrimination is the ability to
differentiate between a conditioned stimulus
and other stimuli that have not been paired
with an unconditioned stimulus.
Classical conditioning with humans
• Explaining fears
• Breaking habits: Aversive conditioning,
counterconditioing
• Immune and endocrine system
• Drug habituation: decreased responsiveness to
a stimulus after repeated preentations.
 2. Operant Conditioning
• A form of associative learning in which the
consequences of a behavior change the
probability of the behavior’s occurrence.
• The law of effect lays the foundation for
operant condioning.
• Law of effect: Thorndike’s law stating that
behaviors followed by positive outcomes are
strengthened and that behaviors followed by
negative outcomes are weakened.
 Thorndike's Puzzle Box Experiment
• A bunch of animals (cat. Pigeon, rat, monkey) were
locked up by Dr. Thorndike and shown a nice
reward if they could get out of the cage. Through
trial and error, the animals figured out the three
things they needed to do to get out of Thorndike's
Puzzle Box and claimed their reward. When
Thorndike put them back in the same cage, the
animals did not need to go through the trial and
error again, which proved that they had actually
learned how to get out of the cage.
Thorndike puzzle box
 Shaping
• Rewarding successive approximation of a
desired behavior is called shaping.
• Desired behaviors can be acquired through
reinforcement or punishment.
• Reinforcement is the process by which a
stimulus or an event (a reinforcer) following a
a particular behavior increases the probability
that the behavior will happen again.
• Punihsment is a consequence that decreases
the likelihood that a behavior will occur.
 Types of reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement: the frequency of a behavior
increases becauseit is followed by the presentation of
something that increases the likelihood of that
behavior. E.g., if someone you meet smiles at you
after you say “hello, how are you?” and you keep
talking, the smile has reinforced your talking.
• Negative reinforcement: the frequency of a behavior
increases becauseit is followed by removal of
something. E.g., if TV is making some irritating
sound, you might give it a good smack on the side,
and if the buzzing stops, you are more likely to smack
the set again if buzzing resumes.
 Punishment
• In Punihsment, a response decreases because of
its unpleasent consequences.
• Types
• Positive punishment, a behavior decreases when
it is followed by the presentation of a stimulus.
E.g., spanking a misbehaving child.
• Negative punishment, a behavior decreases when
a stimulus is removed. E.g., time out .
• Punishment is sometimes confused with
negative reinforcement. Reinforcement
increases behavior while punishment is meant
to decrease it
 3. Observational learning
• Bandura’s Observational learning occurs when
a person observes and imitates someone else’s
behavior. It is also called imitation or
modelling.
• Bandura described four main process in
observational learning.
1. attention: to reproduce a model’s action you
must attend what the model is saying.
 .

2. Retention: to reproduce a model’s action, you

must encode the information and keep it in the
memory so that you can retrieve.
3. Motor production: This requisite of behavior
concerns the physical and mental ability of the
individual to copy the behavior he or she
observed.
4. Reinforcement/ Motivation: Perhaps the most
important aspect of observational learning
involves motivation. If the human or animal does
not have a reason for imitating the behavior, then
no amount of attention, retention, or reproduction
will overcome the lack of motivation.
 Cognitive factors in learning
• Tolman emphasized the purposiveness of
behavior. Purposiveness refers to Tolman’s
belief that much of the behavior is goal
directed.
• Kohler developed the concept of insight
learning, a form of problem soving in which
the organism develops a sudden insight into or
understanding of a problem.