ADIGRAT UNIVERSITY

COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL
AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

11/12/2023
ADU, CET, ECEg 3153
Course name: Introduction to control
systems
Course code: ECEg3153
Course instructor: Getnet Z.
Contact information:
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Email: [email protected]
Consultation hours:
Wednesday and Friday : from 8:00-11:00
OUTLINE
 Introduction to LTI systems
 Mathematical modeling

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 Mechanical systems
 Electrical systems

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 Review of Laplace transform
 Solving linear differential equations

 Transfer function

 Block diagrams

 Signal flow diagrams

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 INTRODUCTION (LTI SYSTEMS )
 A further classification of control systems can be made
depending on the nature of the systems, namely,

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 Linear and Non-linear control systems
 Time variant and time invariant control systems

Considering this two we could see it as:

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

 A system is said to be linear in terms of the system input x(t)

and the system output y(t) if it satisfies the following two
properties of superposition and homogeneity.

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INTRODUCTION (LTI SYSTEMS )
 Superposition:

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Non-Linear Control Systems :
 Any system which does not
obey superposition principle is

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said to be a non-linear system.
 Homogeneity:  Physical systems are in
general non-linear and analysis
of such systems is very
complicated.
 Hence these systems are
usually linear zed and well
known linear techniques are
used to analyze them.

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 INTRODUCTION (LTI SYSTEMS )
 Time Invariant:
 A system is said to be time invariant if a time delay or time

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advance of the input signal leads to an identical time shift in
the output signal.

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 INTRODUCTION (LTI SYSTEMS )
In general:
 A differential equation is linear if the coefficients are

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constants or functions only the independent variable.
 Dynamic systems that are composed of linear time invariant

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lumped parameter components may be described by linear
time invariant (constant coefficient) differential equations.
 Systems that are represented by differential equations
whose coefficients are functions of time are called linear
time varying (LTV) system.
 Example: spacecraft control
 system(themass of the space craft changes due to fuel
consumption)
 A system is non-linear if principle of superposition 6
doesn’t apply.
 INTRODUCTION (LTI SYSTEMS )
Linear time invariant system
representation:

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Continuous-time LTI system
 Order-N Ordinary Differential
equation

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 State equation (Finite order-1
differential equations)
 Transfer function (Laplace
transform)
Discrete-time LTI system
 Ordinary Difference equation
 Transfer function (Z transform)
 State equation (Finite order-1
difference equations)
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 INTRODUCTION (LTI SYSTEMS )
 Impulse response:
 In control theory the impulse response

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is the response of a system to a Dirac delta
input. This proves useful in the analysis of
dynamic systems:

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 The Laplace transform of the delta
function is 1, so the impulse response is
equivalent to the inverse Laplace
transform of the System's transfer
function.
 A continuous-time LTI system is
usually illustrated like this:

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 INTRODUCTION (LTI SYSTEMS )
 The impulse that is referred to in the term impulse
response is generally a short-duration time-domain signal.

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 For continuous-time systems, this is the Dirac delta
function δ(t), while for discrete-time systems, the
Kronecker delta function δ[n] is typically used.

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 A system's impulse response (often annotated as h(t) for
continuous-time systems or h[n] for discrete-time systems)
is defined as the output signal that results when an impulse
is applied to the system input.
y(t)=∫x(τ)h(t−τ)dτ
 where, h(t) is the system's impulse response

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 We will use quantitative mathematical models of physical
systems to design and analyze control systems.

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 The dynamic behavior is generally described by ordinary
differential equations.

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 We will consider a wide range of systems, including
mechanical, electrical and electromechanical systems.
 Even if most physical systems are nonlinear, we will
consider as they are linear or we will take linearization
approximations, which allow us to use Laplace transform
methods.

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 We will then proceed to obtain the input–output
relationship for components and subsystems in the form of

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transfer functions.
 The transfer function blocks can be organized into block

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diagrams or signal-flow graphs to graphically depict the
interconnections.
 Block diagrams (and signal-flow graphs) are very
convenient and natural tools for designing and analyzing
complicated control systems.
 NB: We will notice that in every case the first step in
developing a mathematical model is to apply the
fundamental physical laws of science and engineering.

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Apply physical laws of science & engineering for each

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sub system or for the overall system as a whole

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Sub
sys

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Modeling mechanical systems:
 In mechanical systems, motions can be different types (i.e

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translational, rotational or combination of both) often
governed directly or indirectly by Newton's law of motion.

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 Translational System:
 It has 3 types of forces due to elements.
 Inertial Force: Due to inertial mass,

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Damping Force [Viscous Damping]: Due to viscous
damping, it is proportional to velocity & is given by,

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 Spring Force: Spring force is proportional to displacement.

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 The translational motion can be Summarized as:

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 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Example:1 Determine the transfer function for the mechanical
system taking the force on the mass as an

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input and the displacement as output.

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Solution:
 Free body diagram in time and frequency domain

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Example:2
 Write the differential equation governing the mechanical

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system shown below.

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 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Exercises: write out the differential equation and the
transfer function of the ff mechanical systems

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 (a) (b)

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Rotational Mechanical Systems:
 Consider ideal mass element and negligible friction the

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opposing torque due to the moment of inertia is directly
proportional to angular acceleration

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Consider a frictional element dash pot shown below,
which could produce opposing torque directly

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proportional to angular velocity

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

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Rotational motion summarized as:

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Exercise:

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and the transfer function

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Mechanical Systems with Gears:
 Most of the systems which are driven by motors are

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associated with gear trains for driving the load.
 Which provides mechanical advantage for rotational

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systems.
 An input gear with radius r1 and N1

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 The distance traveled along each gear circumstance is
equal:

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 The number of teeth along the circumstance is proportional
with the radius:

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 Torque relation for input and output gear:

 From the above equations we get:

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Mechanical impedances (spring, damper, inertia) which are
driven by gears:

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Hence the equation of motion for the first case:

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Example: Find the transfer function for the following
 system taking the angular displacement of the second inertia

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as an output when we apply an input torque on the first
inertia:

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Hence, the transfer function and the block diagram becomes:

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a. System transfer function b. Block diagram representation

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Mathematical Modeling Electrical systems


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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Example: determine the mathematical modeling and the
transfer function for the following electrical system.

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 Solution:

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Taking the Laplace transform assuming all initial
conditions zero:

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 Solving the transfer function Vc(s)/V(s)-Output/Input, we
obtain:

 Block diagram representation:

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 To simplify solving our problem, we can take the Laplace
transform equation of voltage-current relation for all the

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three electrical elements as follows(assuming zero initial
conditions):

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Hence, the above problem can be easily solved as:

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 Calculating voltage across the capacitor in terms of loop
current I:

 Then the mathematical modeling of the system in the form

of TF will be:

 Exercise: drive the dynamic differential equation governing 35

parallel RLC circuit
MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
(b) Electrical circuits with active elements:

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 Operational Amplifiers: It is an electronic amplifier used as
a basic building block for implementing transfer functions:

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 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Characteristics of operational Amplifier:
 Differential input : V2(t) –V1(t)

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 High input impedance : Zi = ∞(ideal)
 Low output impedance: Zo = 0 (ideal)

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 High constant gain amplification A= ∞(ideal)

Hence, the output Vo(t) = A(V2(t) –V1(t))

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 From the characteristics of operational amplifier, since the
input impedance is high Ia(s)=0 and from KCL:

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I1(s) = -I2(s)
 Considering the gain A is large V (t)=0, thus

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I1(s)=Vi(s)/Z1(s) and
I2(s) = Vo(s)/Z2(s)
 Equating the above two equation the transfer function for an
inverting amplifier configured as above becomes:

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 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Non- Inverting Operational Amplifier:

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For large gain A:
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Mathematical Modeling for Electromechanical Systems:
 Most systems in Mechatronics are of the mixed type, e.g.,

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electromechanical, hydro mechanical, etc.
 Electromechanical systems are systems which have both electrical

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and mechanical variable.
 It has different application areas: Robot control, Trackers (ex. Sun
& star tracking), Computer tape & Disk drives, different servo
applications.
 Motor: is one of the electromechanical system which yields a
displacement output taking voltage as an input:
Example: Find the Mathematical modeling for DC motor
(Electromechanical system)

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Solution


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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Power Transformation:

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Torque-Current:
Voltage-Speed:
Where Kt: torque constant

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Kb: velocity constant For an ideal motor
 Combing previous equations results in the following
mathematical model:

 Taking Laplace transform of the system’s differential

equations with zero initial conditions gives:
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS

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REVIEW OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM FOR
SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

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REVIEW OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM FOR
SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

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REVIEW OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM FOR
SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
 Inverse Laplace transform/ partial fraction expansion: consider the ff
response

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 Can be expressed as: for real roots

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REVIEW OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM FOR
SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

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EXAMPLE:

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REVIEW OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM FOR
SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
 Exercises:
 1. Solutions of ordinary differential equations of a system

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 2. Partial fraction expansion

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TRANSFER FUNCTION
 Transfer Function:
 In control system differential equations can describe the

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relation ship b/n the input and output of the system.
 Generally;

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 Which relates the output C(t) to the input R(t) by taking
system parameters ai and bi
 Using Laplace transform we transfer this differential
equation into transfer function of the system

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TRANSFER FUNCTION
 Taking all initial conditions zero, the Laplace transform
becomes:

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 Then, the input output ratio becomes;

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We call it this ratio of output signal to input signal, G(s), as the
Transfer Function of the system
It can be represented in Block diagram as:

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TRANSFER FUNCTION
 The features of the transfer functions are,
 (1) It is applicable to Linear Time Invariant system.

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 (2) It is the ratio between the Laplace Transform of the o/p
variable to the Laplace Transform of the i/p variable.

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 (3) It is assumed that initial conditions are zero.
 (4) It is independent of i/p excitation.
 (5) It is used to obtain systems o/p response.

 The step involved in obtaining the transfer function are;

 (1) Write the differential equation of the system.
 (2) Replace the terms (i.e take LT of DE
assuming zero initial conditions )
 (3) Eliminate all the variables except the desired variables.(take
the ratio of the output and input)
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TRANSFER FUNCTION
 Example:
 (a) (b)

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(c)

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TRANSFER FUNCTION
 E.g: transfer function of field controlled dc motor

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TRANSFER FUNCTION
Solution

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TRANSFER FUNCTION
Cont…

 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Block diagram:- is the short hand pictorial representation

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of the cause-effect relation ship between the input and output
of physical systems.

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Block diagram reduction
 Many systems are composed of multiple subsystems and may
have more than one input.
 Systems may be single input single output, SISO or multiple input
multiple output, MIMO.
 In our discussion the systems are SISO type

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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
 Summing Junction and Pickoff Points

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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Cascaded or series blocks
 Cascaded systems: one or more subsystem directly followed by

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an other subsystem.
 Considering that the interconnected subsystem has no loading

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effect on the adjacent subsystem, we can combine cascaded
systems as:

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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
 Parallel Blocks: Blocks with their input signals has the
same takeoff point and their output signal sinks at the same

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summing junction.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION

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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Moving Blocks:
 Moving blocks before and after a summing points, pickoff

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points.
 Moving block before a summing point

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 Moving block ahead a summing point

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 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
 Moving block before a pickoff point

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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Summary table for Block diagram reduction rules

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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
 Cont…

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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
 Example 1: Calculate the transfer function for the following
system in terms of subsystems transfer functions.

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

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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Solution:

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 Cascading + positive feedback

 Cascading + negative feedback

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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
 Example 2: Find the transfer function G(s)= C(s)/R(s)

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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
 Cont…

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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
 Exercise:

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(1)

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION

Signals Flow Graphs:

 Signal-flow graphs are an alternative to block diagrams.

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 Unlike block diagrams, which consist of blocks, signals,
summing junctions, and pickoff points,

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 A signal-flow graph consists only of branches which
represent systems, and nodes which represent signals.
 A system is represented by a line with an arrow showing the
direction of signal flow
 A signal is a node with the signal's name written adjacent to
the node.

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION

Terminologies on Signal flow graphs

 Node: A node is a point representing a variable.(x1,x2)

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 Transmittance: A transmittance is a gain between two nodes.(G)
 Branch: A branch is a line joining two nodes. The signal travels along
a branch.

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 Input node [Source]: It is a node which has only out going signals.(x1)
 Output node [Sink]: It is a node which is having only incoming signals.
(x2)
 Mixed node: It is a node which has both incoming & outgoing branches
(signals).

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION

 Signal flow graph for Interconnected system

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION

 Block diagrams Signal flow graphs

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION

 Block diagrams can be directly converted to signal flow

graphs.

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 If a summing point is placed before a take off point in the
direction of signal flow, in such a case point in the direction

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of signal flow, in such a case the summing point and take off
point shall be represented by a single node.
 If a summing point is placed after a take off point in the
direction of signal flow, in such a case the summing point
and take off point shall be represented by separate nodes
connected by a branch having transmittance unity.

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION

 Converting complicated Block diagram to signal flow

graph

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION

Signal flow graph reduction

 It is a technique for reducing signal-flow graphs to single

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transfer functions that relate the output of a system to its
input.

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 To reduce signal flow graphs we will follow Mason’s Rule.

Mason’s Rule:
First let’s define terminologies which helps to evaluate
Mason’s Rule.
 Path: It is the traversal of connected branches in the
direction of branch arrows. Such that no node is traversed
more than once.
 Loop: It is a closed path.

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION

 Loop Gain: It is the product of the branch transmittances of

a loop.

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 Non-Touching Loops: Loops are Non-Touching, if they do
not possess any common node.

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 Forward Path: It is a path from i/p node to the o/p node
which doesn’t cross any node m ore than once.
 Forward Path Gain: It is the product of branch
transmittances of a forward path.
 Self loop: Path that originates and terminates at the same
node.

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION

M ASO N ’S GAIN FO RM U LA:

 The relation between the i/p variable & the o/p variable of a

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signal flow graphs is given by the net gain between the i/p &
the o/p nodes and is known as Overall gain of the system.

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 Mason’s gain formula for the determination of overall
system gain is given by,

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION

 Cont…

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION

 Non touching loops:

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 Non touching loop gain:
 The product of loop gains from non-touching loops taken two,

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three, four, or more at a time
 All three of the non-touching-loop gains taken two at a time are

 In our example there are no non-touching-loop gains taken

three at a time since three non-touching loops do not exist
 Substitute to the formula and get the transfer function
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Example: Find the transfer function C(s)/R(s) from the signal
flow graph

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION

 Solution Cont…

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION

 Solution Cont…

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION

 Exercise:

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Thank you dear

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students
Any questions?

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