LOGIC NOTES

FI 204
 Lecture 1
Introduction
• Logic is the branch of Philosophy. A
philosopher, Sextus empiricus argued that
“........ This we do, affirm that if truth is to be
sought in every division of philosophy, we
must before all else, possess truthworthy
principles and methods for the discernment of
truths.
 CONT
• Now the logic branch is that which includes
the theory of criteria and of proofs, so it is
with this that we ought to make our
beginnings.”
 CONT
• This means that in order to come out with
truth, a method of determining truth should
be made. So logic consists of the methods and
principles for determining truth.
 CONT
• Charles Saunders Pierce mentioned
that” ....bad reasoning as well as good
reasoning is possible, and this fact is the
foundation of the practical side of logic.”
• It entails that the above philosopher
acknowledged the existence of good and bad
reasoning. So if this is the case what should be
done to distinguish good reasoning from bad
reasoning.
 CONT
• In this case the logic branch of philosophy
comes into place? But what is meant by this
branch ?
 Definition
• It is the study of the methods and principles used
to distinguish good or correct reasoning form bad
or incorrect reasonnig.(Copi I 1997)
• Logic The study of the methods and principles used
to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning.
(Copi, Chen and McMahon 2014)
• Logic has frequently been defined as the science of
the laws of thought. This definition gives a clue to
the nature of logic but it is not accurate because.
•
 CONT
• 1.Thinking is studied by psychologists so it
cannot be the science of the laws of thought
because psychology is also a science that deals
with the laws of thought.
• Logic is not a branch of psychology. It is a
separate and distinct field of study.
 CONT
• Thought refers to any process that occurs to
peoples minds, not all thought is the object study
for a logician because all reasoning is thinking but
not all thinking is reasoning.
• Logic is sometimes defined as a science of
reasoning.
• This definition is better but also will not do because
reasoning is a special kind of thinking in which
problems are solved, in which inferences takes
place.
 CONT
• That is in which conclusions are drawn from
premises. It is special a kind of thinking hence
still a part of psychologist subject matter,
 CONT
• Logic is concerned with the correctness of the
completed process of reasoning. logic is the
study of methods and principles used to
distinguish correct reasoning from incorrect
reasoning.
 Basic terms in logic.

• Inference
• This refers to a process by which one proposition is
arrived at and affirmed on the basis of one or more
propositions which have been accepted as the
starting point of the process.
• Inference A process by which one proposition is
arrived at and affirmed on the basis of some other
proposition or propositions. (Copi, Chen and
McMahon 2014)
•
 Propositions
• Propositions are the building blocks of our
reasoning. A proposition asserts that
something is the case or it asserts that
something is not.
• We may affirm a proposition, or deny it—but
every proposition either asserts what really is
the case, or it asserts something that is not.
(Copi, Chen and McMahon 2014)
• Propositions can either be true or false
 Argument
• Argument
• This is any group of propositions of which one
proposition is arrived at or affirmed on the basis of
one or more propositions which are regarded as
providing evidence or support for the acceptance of
that one.
• Argument Any group of propositions of which one is
claimed to follow from the others, which are
regarded as providing support or grounds for the
truth of that one. (Copi, Chen and McMahon 2014)
 Conclusion
• Conclusion
• This is the proposition that is affirmed on or
arrived at on the basis of one or more propositions
which provide evidence or support for the
acceptance of that one.
• Conclusion In any argument, the proposition to
which the other propositions in the argument are
claimed to give support, or for which they are
given as reasons. (Copi, Chen and McMahon 2014)
 Premise
• Premise
• This is a statement that gives evidence or
support for the acceptance of a conclusion of
an argument.
• Premises In an argument, the propositions
upon which inference is based; the
propositions that are claimed to provide
grounds or reasons for the conclusion. (Copi,
Chen and McMahon 2014)
 The order of premises
• The order of p and c in an argument always
vary.
• 1. The premise may appear first in an argument
as follows:
• Lavender is a woman therefore she must be
loved.
• 2. The conclusion may appear before the
premise as follows.
• Do not judge for we are all sinners.
 cont
• 3. A conclusion may appear between premises
for instance. If you love life, then do not
squander time for that’s the stuff life is made
up of.
• A single argument may have a variety of
premises but the conclusion remains one but
several arguments consist of more than one
conclusion.
 Lecture 2 Recognizing arguments

• Premise indicators
• Premise indicator In an argument, a word or phrase
(like “because” and “since”) that normally signals that
what follows it are statements serving as premises.
(Copi, Chen and McMahon 2014)
• Since, as indicated by, because,
• the reason is that, as,
• may be inferred from
 Premise indicators cont
• follows from,
• may be derived from,
• as shown by,
• in as much as,
• may be deduced from,
• in view of the fact that.
• for the reason that , for,
 Conclusion indicators
• Conclusion indicator A word or phrase (such as
“therefore” or “thus”) appearing in an argument and
usually indicating that what follows it is the conclusion
of that argument. (Copi, Chen and McMahon 2014
• Hence , therefore, , thus, so, accordingly, in
consequence, consequently, proves that, as a result ,
for
• this reason, it follows that, we may infer that, I
conclude that, which follows that , which means that,
 Conclusion indicators cont
• which entails that, which implies that , which
allows us to infer that, which points to the
conclusion that
 quizz
• Identify the premises and conclusions in the
following passages.
• The investigation of supernatural phenomena
lies outside the realm of science, therefore,
science can neither prove nor disprove the
existence of God. 2 marks
 Quiz cont
• 2. A just society cannot possibly pay every one
the same income , since the aptitudes and the
efforts of individuals diverge dramatically and since
the common good is far better served , accordingly,
by systematic inequalities of reward.3 marks

• 3. Thinking is a function of mans immortal soul.

God has given an immortal soul to every man and
woman, but not to any other animal or to machines.
Hence no animal or machine can think. 3 marks
 Quiz cont
• 4. You need to vote because America
doesn't work if you don't vote. .
• 5.The death penalty is too costly. In New York
State alone taxpayers spent more than $200
million in our state’s failed death penalty
experiment, with no one executed.
Lecture 3 Basic functions of language.
• Informative function.
• The first use of language is to communicate
information. This is achieved by affirming or denying
propositions. This means that a proposition can be
either true or false. When this happens we say that
the language is serving an informative function .
• This discourse is used to describe the world and to
reason about it, eg science provides us with the
clearest eg of informative function because it
furnishes us with facts.
 Inform cont
• Summary of informative
• this communicate information
• Can be true or false
• Describe the world or report information.
• Furnishes us with knowledge or facts.
• Use affirm /deny
 Expressive function
• Expressive functions
• Poetry is an eg. It does not inform us of any
facts or theories concerning the world. Thus it
is not concerned with knowledge but with
feelings and attitudes.
• Expressive functions express emotions and
feelings.
• It evokes similar feelings in the audience.
 Expressive cont
• this function serves the purpose of expressing
feelings not ideas, facts and opinions and to
arouse feelings or emotions.
• this discourse is neither true nor false. The
focus is not on knowledge but on feelings or
emotions.
 Directive

• Is intended to cause or prevent action eg

commands and request. Its all about does
and don'ts.
• it is largely intended to get results or cause
action of a certain kind eg get rid of him. It is
neither true nor false.eg close the window
can neither be true nor false but can be
obeyed or disobeyed.
 Directive cont
• Discourse serving a multiple functions.
Language can serve informative ,expressive
and directive functions simultaneously eg a
sermon
 quizz
• Identify and explain language functions
intended to be served by each of the
following passages
• 1 War is the greatest plague that afflicts
humanity; it destroys religion, states and
families.
• 2 I believe that war at present is more
productive of good than of evil.
 Quizz cont
• They have no lawyers among them, for their
profession is to disguise matters and conceal
facts.
• In our childhood
In the kingdom by the sea
We loved each other with a love that was
more than love
I and my Annabel Lee.
 Lecture 4 Kinds of agreements and
disagreements,
• Two people may disagree about whether
something happened or not. When this
happens there is disagreement in belief.
• when two parties agree that a certain event
occurred there is agreement in belief.
• for instance Peter killed John and the other
one said it is true that Peter murdered John.
 cont
• Agreement in belief does not necessarily
mean agreement in attitude.
• Two parties may agree that a certain event
occurred but may have a different attitude
towards that. (Disagreement in attitude)
• One may approve of it and uses a language
that expresses approval and the other one
may disapprove and uses a language that
expresses disapproval.
• When this happens this is not disagreement in
belief but disagreement in attitude.
• for instance Helen seduced Peter and the other
one says Helen and Peter are deeply in love.
• in this case there is agreement in belief that there
is love between the two but there is disagreement
in attitude, the first one uses a language that
expresses disapproval and the other one uses a
language that expresses approval.
 cont
• People may agree in attitude but fail to agree
in belief for instance, one may say for
instance, I believe that Noel has reconsidered
the question and changed his position and so
praise him for he listened to the voice of
reason.
 cont
• The other one may say, he has not changed
his mind and praise him for refusing to be
swayed by other people. This is more
common in politics, people may support the
same candidate for different and incompatible
reasons.
• in this case there is disagreement in belief the
first one affirms and the other one denies.
 cont
• There is also agreement in attitude, the first
person expresses feelings of approval of his
change of mind and the other one expresses
feelings of approval of his failure to change his
mind.
 cont
• There is possibility that we may have a
disagreement which is complete.
• for instance, a may argue that Noel has not
changed his mind and disapproves of him for
being pig headed to admit to his mistake.
 cont
• And the other one may say Noel has changed
his mind and approves of him for he
reconsidered the case...
• in this case there is disagreement in belief, the
first one denies and the second one affirms.
• There is also disagreement in attitude the fist
one disapproves and the second one
approves.
 Quiz

• Identify kinds of agreements and

disagreements exhibited by the following
passages.
• 1. vee: the blacks repossessed the land
vaal: the blacks invaded the land
2. vee: Half of the people in here are stupid.
vaal: half of the people in here are not
stupid
 lecture 5 Definitions
• A symbol being defined is called definiendum and the
group of symbols being used to explain the meaning of
the definiendum is called definiens.
•
• Stipulative
• One who introduces a new symbol may stipulate what
meaning is to be given to it. The definition that arises
from the deliberate assignment of a meaning is properly
called stipulative. The term newly defined may not be
entirely novel it may be new only in the context in which
the definition takes place.
 cont
• Stipulative definitions are sometimes called
nominal or verbal definitions. New terms may
be introduced by stipulation for a variety of
reasons;
• Secrecy is another reason the stipulation may
be understood by the sender and the receiver.
• Convenience a single word may serve as short
for many words in a code or message.
 cont
• economy in expression in science used a new
symbol to define it instead of writing long
sequence of familiar words eg H2O or Oz
 cont
• By using stipulative, the scientist economizes on a
space required for writing out reports and theories as
well as time involved. There is also reduction in the
amount attention or mental energy required for when a
sentence or equation grows too long its sense can not
be easily taken in eg instead of writing a * a* a…… one
may write A to the power 12
• A stipulation can neither be true nor false, accurate or
inaccurate hence does it differ from dictionary
definition.
• Stipulation should be regarded as a proposal
 Lexical definition

• The purpose is to eliminate ambiguity. The

term defined is not new, it has established
usage. A lexical definition does not give its
definiendum a meaning but reports a meaning
the definiandum already has.
• It may be true or false eg a mountain is a large
mass of earth rocks to a considerable height.
There are sometimes referred to as real
definitions
 Précising definitions

• Stipulative, lexical, reduce ambiguity but precise serve to reduce

vagueness and also a sort of confusion in an argument. The term
is vague when there exist borderline cases so that it cannot be
determined whether the term should be applied to it or not.
• It differs from stipulative in that its definiendum is not a new term
but one whose meaning is established although vague. The
makers of a precise definition are not free to assign a new
meaning they chose to the definiandum they must remain true to
the established usage. The aim is to make a known term more
precise so as to reduce vagueness. Legal decision, often involve
precise definitions in which statutory terms are clarified to cover
the case.
 Theoretical

• This definition attempt to emulate theoretically

adequate or scientifically useful description of
objects to which the term applies. To propose a
theoretical definition is tantamount to proposing
the acceptance of the theory and theories are
debatable. As the knowledge and theoretical
understanding of the subject increases, one
theoretical definition may be replaced by another.
•
 Persuasive
• Definitions may be formulated and used
persuasively by influencing the attitudes or
stirring the emotions of readers or hearers we
call this persuasive. This means that language
is at times deliberately calculated to affect
feelings. There are common in political
arguments
Lecture 6 Deductive and inductive arguments

• 1.A deductive argument is one whose

premises are claimed to provide conclusive
grounds for the truth of its conclusion
• When reasoning in a deductive argument is
correct we call it a valid argument.
• When reasoning in deductive argument is
incorrect we call it invalid.
 deductive and inductive cont
• A deductive argument is valid when its
premises , if true do provide conclusive
grounds for the truth of its conclusion. A
deductive argument is invalid if premises do
not provide conclusive grounds for the
acceptance of its conclusion.
 Inductive and deductive arguments cont

• 2.But the terms valid and invalid does not

apply to inductive arguments.
• in an inductive argument, premises do not
provide conclusive grounds for its conclusion
but they provide some support for the
conclusion. Hence valid and invalid does not
apply instead may use better or worse.
• 3.Deductive arguments move from general to
particular. for instance
• All children of god are obedient
• Valour is a child of God
• Therefore valour is obedient
• Inductive arguments move from particular to
general for instance
• Valour is obedient
• Nyasha is obedient
• Probably all human beings are obedient
• 4.Deductive argument is based on certainity
whilst inductive arguments base their
arguments on probability and probability is
not a certainity.
• 5. the relationship between premises and
conclusion in deductive arguments are very
strict or close relationship is claimed to hold
between premises and conclusions.
• If a deductive argument is valid, then given
the truth of its premises , its conclusion must
be true no matter what may be the case. But
the relationship between the premises and
conclusions in inductive reasoning is less strict.
An addition of one p may weaken or
strengthen an argument but bin deductive
argument addition of one p cannot make an
argument more valid or invalid.
• In inductive argument if the first p is true and
the second true, the conclusion is more likely to
be true. For instance
• If it is true that v is obedient
• And true that n id obedient
• Then probably all humans are obedient.
• This may not be case to all humans if it is true
then it is based on probability.
•
 Lecture 7 Validity and soundness

• It is the one in which premises support the

conclusion completely. it is necessary that if
the p are true, then the c is also true. There is
a necessary connection between p and c. the
truth of the c is absolutely guaranteed given
the truth of the p. thus for a c to be true, the p
should be true and it is impossible for a c to be
true if the p are false and the vice versa is
true.
• Nb this does not mean that the p and c are of
a valid argument are true but it simply mean
that if the premises are true then the c is also
true.
• For instance
• All biologists are scientist
• John is not a scientist
• Then John is not a biologist
• In ordinary English the term valid simply means
ones approval of an argument but in logic the
term focus the attention on the relatioship
between p and c rather than on the actual
truth or falsity of a statement in an argument.
for instance,
• All sharks are birds
• All birds are politicians
• So all sharks are politicians.
• The argument consist of two false p but it is
valid simply because of the connection
between p and c rather than the truth or
falsity of the statement. If the p were true the
c would have been true.
• Invalid arguments
• It has this essential feature that it is not necessary
that if the p are true, then the c is true. This means
that even if the p are true, the c can be false.
• All dogs are animals
• All cats are animals
• Hence all dogs are cats.
•
• A sound argument
• It has two essential features. That it is valid
and all its p are true. Valid plus all its p true
equals to sound.
• Eg all colloiuesare dogs
• All dogs are animals
• So, all collies are animals
•
• Unsound argument
• It is one that is either valid or has at least one
false p
• Eg all birds are animals
• Some grazing bears are not animals
• Therefore some grazing bears are not birds.
• This is unsound because it has false second
premise although it is valid.
• An unsound argument can have both invalid
argument and one false p.
• All trees are animals
• All bears are animals
• So, all bears are trees
• A valid argument with at least one false
premise is unsound
• Valid arguments with all premises true are
sound
• An invalid argument with at least one false
premise or all false premise is unsound
• All invalid arguments are unsound
• But not all valid arguments are sound
Lecture 8 Classes and categorical propositions

• A class is a collection of all objects that have some

specified characteristics in common.(simply a
collection or set of things). A Categorical
proposition is a statement that relates two classes
or categories. Eg of categorical statements
• 1. All ducks are animals
• 2. No humans are horses
• 3. Some soldiers are cowards
• 4. Some subatomic particles are not electrons
• No 1 says every members of classes of ducks is totally
included in the class of animals
• No 2 the two classes that is that of humans and horses have
nothing in common. They have no members in common. So
the class of humans is wholly excluded from the horses.
• No 3 some but not all soldiers are cowards. So some
members of soldiers are partially included in the class of
cowards.
• No 4 says some so, at least one of the subatomic particles is
not an electron. So one subatomic particle is excluded from
the class of electrons.
• Types of categorical statements
• A EI O
• NB to be in standard form the elements of categorical
propo should appear in this form.
• 1 quantifier quantity all, no, some
• 2 subject term- word or phrase that names a class or
category.
• 3 copula are, are not.
• 4. Predicate -a word or phrase that names a class or
category.
• 5. All flowers are trees
• No flowers are trees
• Some flowers are trees.
• Some flowers are not trees.
 Quality and quantity
• Quality affirmative, negative
• If a propo affirms that one class is wholly included
or partially included in another class then it is
affirmative.for instance A and I prop. But if the
statement denies that one class is wholly included
or partially, then the statement’s quality is negative.
For eg E and O prop.
• Categorical propo which starts with all and no are
universal and those which start with some are
particular.
• A All s is p is universal affirmative
• E No s is p -universal negative no members of the
class of s are members of the class of p eg no man are
women. no members of the class of men are women
• I some s is p -particular affirmative some animals are
carnivores some members of the class of animals are
carnivores
• O Some s is not p -particular negative. Some
mammals are not land animals .some members of
classes of mammals are not included in the class of land
animals.
• Name of form quantity quality
• A –All s is p universal affirmative
• E-No s is p universal negative
• I-Some s is p particular affirmative
• S-Some s is not p particular negative
 quizz
• Put the following categorical statements into
standard form, name the form, name the
quantity and quality and represent them by
means of venn diagrams
• Every cat is a mammal
• Nothing that is a mammal is a human
• There are fish that are sharks
• at least one person is not crazy.
 Distribution

• Categorical proposition are regarded as being about

classes of objects are designed by the subject and the
predicate terms. A propo all bu students are intelligent
people
• The propo is about all bu students it is not about
intelligent people. It does not affirm that all intelligent
people are bu students neither does it deny it.
• A propo refer to all members of the class designated by
the subject term, it does not refer to the class
designated by the predicate term. In this case all bu
students is distributed but the predicate term is not.
• Therefore A propo distribute their subject term and
does not distribute their predicate terms. All s is p that’s
all and does not mean vice versa.
• E -NO criminals are innocent people. The whole subject
term is distributed because all class of criminals is
excluded from the class of innocent people. But in saying
that the class of criminals is excluded from the class of
innocent people is to say that the class of innocent
people is also excluded from the class of criminals. To say
no s is p also means that no p is s. so E propo distribute
both subject and predicate terms.
• I -Propo eg some hypocrites are criminals . The assertion
is not made about all hypocrites or all criminals. Nothing
is said about all hypocrites, nothing is included wholly in
another class and nothing is excluded totally from
another class.
• I-propo does not distribute their subject and predicate.
• O propo some bu students are not intelligent people
nothing is said about all bu students. Some tells us at
least its not about all members of the class of bu
students .
• The subject term is therefore not distributed. But
we are told that in this propo that some bu
students are not intelligent people. We are told
something about the entire predicate term.
• The subject term is not distributed but the
predicate term is. Predicate term refers to the
entire class of the intelligent people which
encompasses bu, uz, nust. So o propositions does
not distribute the subject term but distribute their
predicate term
 Summary of distribution

• Name of form subject predicate

• A D UD
• E D D
• I UD UD
• O UD D
 Lecture 9 Categorical syllogism

• Syllogism- is a deductive argument in which a

conclusion is inferred from 2 premises.
• Categorical syllogism is a deductive argument
consisting of three propositions that together
contain exactly three terms , each of which occurs
in exactly two of the constituent propositions.
• three propo that we are talking about are 2
premises and a conclusion.
•
• So this means that a cate syll consist of three
cate statements and three terms. Nb a cate
syll is said to be in standard form when its
premises and conclusion are all standard form
cate propo and are arranged in a specified
order .
• Major, minor and middle terms.
• The conclusion of a standard form cate propo
that contains 2 of the syll 3 terms.
• The conclusion is used to identify the terms of
the syllogism . The term that occurs as the
predicate of the conclusion is called the major
term of the syllo. The term that occurs as the
subject term of the conclusion is called the
minor term of the syllogism .
• The third term of the syll which does not
apper in the conclusion but appearing in both
premises is called the middle term. Eg
• All astronomers are scientists
• Some astrologers are not scientist
• Therefore some astrologers are not
astronomers
• The term astronomers, is a major term becoz it is the
predicate term of the conclusion. The term astrologers
is the minor term becoz it is the subject term of the
conclusion. The middle term here is the scientist becoz
it does not appear in the conclusion but instead in both
premises.
• nb the premise of a standard form syll are named after
the terms that appear in them. The premise that
contains the major term is called the major premise and
the premise that contains the minor term is called the
minor premise.
• We have noted before that the standard form cate
syll should have its premise arranged in a specified
standard order. The order being,
• In a standard form syll the major premise is stated is
the minor second and the conclusion last.
• Nb it should be noted that the major premise is not
defined in terms of its position but as the premises
that contains the major term which is by definition
the predicate term of the conclusion.
• .
• The minor premise is not defined by its
position but as the premise containing the
minor term which is by definition the subject
term of the conclusion
 The mood
• The mood of a standard form syllogisms is defined by the
types identified by the letters A E I O of the standard
form cate propo it contains. The mood of every syllogism
is represented by the letters in a specified order which is
• The first letter names the types of syllogisms major
premise
• Second letter names the types of its minor premise and
the third names the type of its conclusion for eg major
premise.a
• AOO
 Figure

• The mood of a standard form syllogism does

not completely characterise its form.
• A) The mood of a standard form syll does not
completely characterize its form g
• All great scientist are college graduates
• Some professional athelets are college
graduates
• Therefore some professional athelets are great
scientist
• B) all artist are egoitist
• Some artist are paupers
• Some paupers are egotist
• Both have the mood AII but have the different
forms.the difference in the forms is shown cĺearly by
displaying the logical skeletons.minor tem is
represented by s and the major by p the middle by
m. The figure indicates the position of the middle
term in the premises.
•
Fig 1
M-p
S-m
S-p
Fig 2
p-m
S-m
S-p
• Fig 3
M-p
M-s
S-p
• Fig 4
P-m
M-s
S-p
 procedure

• 1. Identify the conclusion

• 2. Note its predicate term which is the major
term of the syllogism.
• 3. Identify its major premise which is the
premise containing the major term
• 4. Verify that the other premise is a minor premise
by checking to see that it contains the minor term
which is the subject term of the conclusion.
• 5. Rewrite the argument in standard form, major
premise first minor second and conclusion last.
• 6. Name the mood and figure of the syllogism.
• 7. test the validity by means of venn diagrams
 Lecture 10 The formal nature of a
syllogism
• .
• The mood and figure of a syllogism uniquely determine
its form and the form of a syllogism is the most
important aspect in logic.
• The validity and invalidity of an argument depends on
its form and is completely independent of its specific
content or subject matter. A valid syllogism is a
formally valid argument by virtue of its form alone. It
implies
that the given syllogism is valid and other syllogism of
the same form will also be valid.
• Aaa 1 is a valid argument regardless of its
subject matter.
• All m is p
• All s is m
• All s is p
•
• All greèks aŕe humans
• All athnians are greeks
• All athenians are humans.
• Venn diagram technique for testing validity
• We have noted before that we used two circles
of venn diagrams to represent categorical
propositions now we use 3 circles for
categorical syllogisms eg aaa 1 is valid
• and aaa 2 is invalid.
• Eg of invalid argument
• All dogs are mammals
• All cats are mammals
• Therefore all cats are dogs.
• Oao 3
• Aoo 3
 Quiz categorical syllogisms
• 3. Put each of the following syllogisms into standard
form, name the mood and figure and then test their
validity by means of Venn diagrams.
•
• ii) Every wicked person is self deceived, for all liars
are wicked and every liar is self deceived. 7
• iii) No criminals were pioneers. For all criminals are
unsavory persons and no pioneers were unsavory
persons. 6
•
 Quiz cont
• 1. Write the following syllogistic forms using s
and p as the subject and predicate terms and
m as the middle term and test their validity by
means of venn diagrams.
• i) EEA-1 3

• ii) OAO-3 3
• iii) EAE-4 3