UNIT VI

Algebraic Structures and

Coding Theory
Prepared By
Mrs. Shivani Agrawal
Assistant Professor
Vishwaniketan’s iMEET
 Syllabus
• The structure of algebra,
• Algebraic Systems,
• Semi Groups,
• Monoids,
• Groups,
• Homomorphism and
• Normal Subgroups, and
• Congruence relations,
• Rings,
• Integral Domains and Fields,
• Coding theory,
• Polynomial Rings and polynomial Codes,
• Galois Theory –Field Theory and Group Theory.
By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 2
 Algebraic System
• Definition:
• An operation on a non empty set A is a function
f: An A,
An being the product set of A
• Observe the following properties that a binary operation can satisfy
• The n-ary operation must be defined for each n- tuple(a1,a2, a3, ------an) ϵ A
• Since it is a function only, one element of A should be assigned to each n-tuple of A n
• if n = 1, f is called unary
• if n = 2, f is called binary
• if n = 3, f is called ternary and so on

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 3

 Algebraic System
• Example:
• The function f: Z Z, Where
• f(x)=-x, is unary
• The function f: Z x Z Z, Where
• f(x,y)=x+y, is binary
• The function f: Z x Z x Z Z, Where
• f(x,y,z)=x, is ternary

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 4

 Algebraic System
• Definition:
• An algebraic system is an ordered pair (A,F) where
• A is a set of elements called as the carrier of the algebra
• F is a finite set of m-ary operations on the carrier m being a variable
• Example:
• Let E={0, 2, 4, …….}. Then E with binary operation addition + represents an algebraic
system (E,+)
• The set of integers Z with the two binary operations of addition + and multiplication x is
an algebraic system and it is denoted as (Z,+, x)

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 5

 Properties of Binary Operation
• Commutative:
• Let * be a binary operation on a set A.
• The operation * is said to be commutative in A
if a * b= b * a for all a, b ϵ A.
• Associativity:
• Let * be a binary operation on a set A.
• The operation * is said to be associative in A
if (a * b) * c = a *( b * c) for all a, b, c ϵ A.
• Idempotent:
• Let * be a binary operation on a set A.
• The operation * is said to be idempotent in A
if a * a = a for all a ϵ A.
By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 6
 Properties of Binary Operation
• Table of Binary Operation:
• Let A= {0, 1} and let x denote multiplication. Then the binary table is

X 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 1

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 7

 Examples
• Example: For each of the following determine whether * is binary
operation
1) R is is the set of real numbers and a*b=ab
2) Z+ ia the set of positive integers and a*b =a/b
3) Z+ ia the set of positive integers and a*b =a-b
• Answer:
1) Yes
2) No
3) No

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 8

 Examples
• Example: For each of the following determine whether binary operation * is
commutative or associative
1) N is is the set of natural numbers and a*b=a+b+2, for a,b ϵ N
• Answer:
• a*b = a+b+2 and b*a = b+a+2 both are equal therefore it is commutative
• a*(b*c) = a*(b+c+2)
= a+(b+c+2)+2
= a+b+c+4
(a*b)*c = (a+b+2)*c
= (a+b+2)+c+2
= a+b+c+4
Therefore it is associative
By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 9
 Examples
• Example: Following table of a binary operation * is given. Is *
commutative
* a b c
a b c a
b c b a
c a b c

• Answer:
not commutative

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 10

 Examples
• Example: Consider the binary operation * defined on the set A={ a, b, c, d} by
the following table:
* a b c d
a a c b d
b d a b c
c c d a a
d d b a c

1) c*d and d*c

2) b*d and d*b
3) a*(b*c) and (a*b)*c
4) Is * commutative and associative
• Answer:
By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 11
 Semigroups
• Definition:
• Let (A, *)be an algebraic system, with binary operation * on A. Then (A, *) is
said to be a semigroup if * is an associative
(a * b) * c = a *( b * c) for all a, b, c ϵ A.
• The semigroup further said to be commutative if * is commutative
a * b= b * a for all a, b ϵ A.
• Examples:
• (Z,+) is a commutative semigroup
• (Z,x) is a commutative semigroup
• (Z,-) is not a semigroup as subtraction is not associative.

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 12

 Semigroups
• Definition:
• An element e in (A, *)is called left identity element if e*x=x for all x ϵ A.
• An element e in (A, *)is called right identity element if x*e=x for all x ϵ A.
• Semigroup can have more than one left (or right) identity as shown in
following example
• Examples: an algebraic system (A,*) shown in following table is semigroups
* a b c
a a b c
b a c b
c a b c

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 13

 Semigroups
• Definition:
• An element e in semigroup (A, *)is called an identity element if x*e=e*x=x for
all x ϵ A.
• i. e. both left and right identity
• e is unique
• Examples:
• (Z,+) is a semigroup which has an identity element number 0
• (Z,x) is a semigroup which has an identity element number 1
• (N,+) is a semigroup which has no identity element as number 0 not an element of N.

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 14

 Semigroups
• Definition:
• Monoid is a semigroup (A, *) that has an identity element
• Example:
• Let E={0, 2, 4, …….}. Then (E,+) is a monoid, with the number 0 as an identity element.
• Definition:
• let (A, *) be an Algebraic system and let B be a subset of A. Then B is said to
be closed under *, if for any element b, c ϵ B, b*c is also in B.
• Definition:
• let (A, *) be an semigroup and let B be a non empty subset of A such that B is
closed under *. Then (B, *) is itself a semigroup and is called sub semigroup
of (A, *)
By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 15
 Semigroups
• Definition:
• let (A, *) be an monoid and let B be a non empty subset of A. Then (B, *) is
called sub monoid of (A, *) if
• B is closed under *
• The identity element e ϵ B.
• Example:
• Let E={0, 2, 4, …….}. Then (E,+) is a sub monoid of (Z, +)

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 16

 Semigroups
• Definition:
• let (A, *) be an monoid with identity element e. Let B be a non empty subset of A. Then monoid
generated by B, denoted by <B> is defined as follows:
i. e ϵ <B>, and if b ϵ B, then b also is in <B>, that is B is subset of <B>.
ii. <B> is closed under *
iii. The only elements of <B> are those obtained from step i and ii.
• Example: Find the smallest sub monoid of (Z, +) generated by the set {-4,6}
• Answer:
• Let B = {-4,6}, then sub monoid obtained as follows:
i. 0,6,-4 ϵ <B>
ii. If x,y ϵ <B> then x+y ϵ <B>
iii. <B> contains only elements obtained from step i and ii.
therefore <B> = { 0, 6, -4, 2, -2, 4, 8, -6, 10, ………}
= set of even integers
• Example: Find the smallest sub monoid of E* generated by B where E={a,b} and B={aa, bbb}
• Answer: <B> = {ϵ, aa, bbb, aabbb, bbbaa, aaaa, bbbbbb,………}
By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 17
 Groups
• Definition:
• An algebraic system (G, *) is said to be a group if the following conditions are
satisfied.
• * is a closed operation.
• * is an associative operation.
• There is an identity in G.
• Every element in G has inverse in G i. e. a ϵ G then a-1ϵ G
• For all a in G, there exists b in G, such that a * b = e and b * a = e. Then a is inverse of b and b is
inverse of a
• Example:
• (Z,+) is group. The identity element is the number 0 & for every n ϵ Z, its inverse is (–n) ϵ Z
• Definition:
• A group (G, *) is said to be abelian group if a * b = b * a for all a, b ϵ G
By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 18
 Groups
• Example: Write Group tables for Z3 and Z4 under +
• Answer:
Z3 Z4
+ [0] [1] [2]
+ [0] [1] [2] [3]
[0] [0] [1] [2]
[0] [0] [1] [2] [3]
[1] [1] [2] [0]
[1] [1] [2] [3] [0]
[2] [2] [0] [1]
[2] [2] [3] [0] [1]
[3] [3] [0] [1] [2]

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 19

 Groups
• Example: Let A={a,b,c} and F denote the set of functions from A to A
given as follows find (F,.) and is this group is abelian
• Answer: f1 . f3= f5 and f3. f1 = f4 so it is not abelian.

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 20

 Groups
• Definition:
• Let (G, *) be a group. The order of G is the cardinality of G, denoted by |G|
• Example:
• (Z, +) is a group with infinite order
• (Zm, +) is a group with finite order m
• Definition:
• The number of elements in a group is called order of the group.
• Definition:
• If the order of a group G is finite, then G is called a finite group.

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 21

 Basic Properties of Groups
• In a Group (G, * ) the following properties hold good
• 1. Identity element is unique.
• 2. Inverse of an element is unique.
• 3. Cancellation laws hold good
• a * b = a * c implies b = c (left cancellation law)
• a * c = b * c implies a = b (Right cancellation law)
• 4. (a * b) -1 = b-1 * a-1
• In a group, the identity element is its own inverse.

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 22

 Subgroups
• Definition:
• A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G, if (H, *) is a group.
• Example:
• G = {1, -1, i, -i } is a group w.r.t multiplication. H1 = { 1, -1 } is a subgroup of G .
• Theorem:
• A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G iff
• i) a * b ϵ H for all a, b ϵ H
• ii) a -1 ϵ H for all a ϵ H

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 23

 Cosets
• Definition:
• If H is a sub group of( G, * ) and a ϵ G then the set
• Ha = { h * a | h ϵ H}is called a right coset of H in G.
• aH = {a * h | h ϵ H}is called a left coset of H is G.

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 24

 Homomorphism
• Definition:
• Consider the groups ( G, *) and ( G1, , ) A function f : G G1 is called a
homomorphism if f ( a * b) = f(a) f (b)
• Definition:
• If a homomorphism f : G G1 is a bijection then f is called isomorphism
between G and G1 . Then we write G G1

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 25

 Rings
• Definition:
• An algebraic structure (R, +, .) is called ring if
• (R,+) is an abelian group
• Associativity of multiplication holds: a.(b.c)=(a.b).c
• The left distributive law
• a.( b + c ) = a . b + a . c
• The right distributive law
• ( b + c ). a = b . a + c . a are satisfied by + and .

• Definition:
• A ring R is said to be commutative ring if a.b=b.a, for all a, b ϵ R

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 26

 Rings
• Definition:
• A ring R is said to be a ring with unit element if there exists an element, denoted by the
symbol l such that a . l = l . a = a, for all a ϵ R.
• Example:
• (Z,+, .) is ring and is commutative ring with the unit element , the integer 1
• Basic properties of rings:
• If R is a ring with identity 0 and unit element 1, then following are true, for all elements a, b
ϵR
• a.0=0.a=0
• a . (-b) = (-a) . b = -(a.b)
• (-a) . (-b) = a . b
• Unit element is unique
• (-1) . a = -a
• (-1) . (-1) = 1
By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 27
 Rings
• Definition:
• R is a subset of S where (S , + , . ) is a ring, then R is called as subring of S if
(R, +, .) is a ring with operations + and . restricted to elements of R.
• Example:
• Ring of even integers is subring of ring of integers.
• Set of rationals is a subring of ring of real numbers
• Definition:
• Let R and S be rings. A ring homomorphism is a function f : R → S such that:
• (a) For all x, y ∈ R, f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y).
• (b) For all x, y ∈ R, f(xy) = f(x)f(y).
• If f is one – one and onto then it is called ring isomorphism

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 28

 Rings
• Definition:
• The kernel of a ring map f : R → S is
ker f = {r ∈ R | f(r) = 0}.
• Definition:
• A non empty set I of ring R is called an ideal in R if
• I is a subgroup of R, under addition
• For every a ∈ I, a.x=x.a, for all x ∈ R
• Definition:
• Let R be a commutative ring. Then a ≠ 0 ∈ R is called a zero divisor if there exists b ≠
0 ∈ R , such that a* b = 0
• Example
• [2] is zero divisor in (Z4, +, .) as [2] . [2] =[2.2]=[4]=0
By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 29
 Rings
• Example:

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 30

 Integral Domains and Fields

• Definition:
• Let R be a commutative ring. Then R is called an integral domain if it has no
zero divisor
• Definition:
• Let R be a commutative ring with unit element. If every non zero element has
multiplicative inverse then R is called as field.

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 31

 Integral Domains and Fields

• Example:

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 32

 Coding Theory

• Code is a collection of words that are to be used to represent distinct messages

• Word in a code called code word
• Encoding:
• Decoding:
• Binary code is string of 0 and 1
• Number of bits is length of binary word or binary code
• Block code is code consisting of words that are of the same length
• B2={00,01,10,11}
• B3= {000,001,010,011,100,101,110,111}

By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 33

Coding Theory

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Coding Theory

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Coding Theory

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 Coding Theory
• Parity check:

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 Coding Theory
• Hamming code:

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Coding Theory

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Coding Theory

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 Coding Theory
• Decoding:

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Polynomial Rings and Polynomial Codes

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Polynomial Rings and Polynomial Codes

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By Mrs. Pallavi Yevale, AI&DS, DYPIEMR, Pune 44