Module No.

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Discrete Mathematics
Outline
 Introduction
 Sets
 Logic & Boolean Algebra
 Proof Techniques
 Counting Principles
 Combinatorics
 Relations,Functions
 Graphs/Trees
 Boolean Functions, Circuits

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Introduction to Discrete Mathematics

 What Is Discrete Mathematics?

 An example: The Stable Marriage
Problem

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 The Stable Marriage Problem

 The Problem
 A Solution:
 The Deferred Acceptance
Algorithm

 In the future we will:

 Prove that the assignment is stable (reading
tonight).
 Prove that the assignment is optimal for suitors.
 Count the number of possible assignments.
 Calculate the complexity of the algorithm.

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 Stable
 Marriage partners should be assigned in such a
manner that no one will be able to find someone
(whom they prefer to their assigned mate) that is
willing to elope with them.

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What Is Discrete Mathematics?
 What it isn’t: continuous
 Discrete: consisting of distinct or
unconnected elements
 Countably Infinite
 Definition Discrete Mathematics
 Discrete Mathematics is a collection of
mathematical topics that examine and
use finite or countably infinite
mathematical objects.

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Outline
 Introduction
 Sets
 Logic & Boolean Algebra
 Proof Techniques
 Counting Principles
 Combinatorics
 Relations,Functions
 Graphs/Trees
 Boolean Functions, Circuits

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 It is assumed that you have studied
set theory before.
 The remaining slides in this section
are for your review. They will not
all be covered in class.
 If you need extra help in this area,
a special help session will be
scheduled.

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Sets: Learning Objectives
 Learn about sets
 Explore various operations on sets
 Become familiar with Venn diagrams
 CS:
 Learn how to represent sets in computer
memory
 Learn how to implement set operations in
programs

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 Sets
 Definition: Well-defined collection of distinct objects
 Members or Elements: part of the collection
 Roster Method: Description of a set by listing the
elements, enclosed with braces
 Examples:
 Vowels = {a,e,i,o,u}
 Primary colors = {red, blue, yellow}
 Membership examples
 “a belongs to the set of Vowels” is written as:
a  Vowels
 “j does not belong to the set of Vowels:
j  Vowels

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 Sets
 Set-builder method
 A = { x | x  S, P(x) } or A = { x  S | P(x) }
 A is the set of all elements x of S, such that x
satisfies the property P
 Example:
 If X = {2,4,6,8,10}, then in set-builder
notation, X can be described as

X = {n  Z | n is even and 2  n  10}

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 Sets
 Standard Symbols which denote sets of numbers
 N : The set of all natural numbers (i.e.,all positive integers)
 Z : The set of all integers
 Z+ : The set of all positive integers
 Z* : The set of all nonzero integers
 E : The set of all even integers
 Q : The set of all rational numbers
 Q* : The set of all nonzero rational numbers
 Q+ : The set of all positive rational numbers
 R : The set of all real numbers
 R* : The set of all nonzero real numbers
 R+ : The set of all positive real numbers
 C : The set of all complex numbers
 C* : The set of all nonzero complex numbers

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 Sets
 Subsets
 “X is a subset of Y” is written as X  Y
 “X is not a subset of Y” is written as X Y
 Example:
 X = {a,e,i,o,u}, Y = {a, i, u} and
Z= {b,c,d,f,g}
 Y  X, since every element of Y is an element of X
 Y Z, since a  Y, but a  Z

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Sets
 Superset
 X and Y are sets. If X  Y, then “X is contained in
Y” or “Y contains X” or Y is a superset of X,
written Y  X
 Proper Subset
 X and Y are sets. X is a proper subset of Y if X 
Y and there exists at least one element in Y that
is not in X. This is written X  Y.
 Example:
 X = {a,e,i,o,u}, Y = {a,e,i,o,u,y}

 X  Y , since y  Y, but y  X

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Sets

 Set Equality
 X and Y are sets. They are said to be equal if every
element of X is an element of Y and every element of Y is
an element of X, i.e. X  Y and Y  X
 Examples:
 {1,2,3} = {2,3,1}

 X = {red, blue, yellow} and Y = {c | c is a primary

color} Therefore, X=Y

 Empty (Null) Set
 A Set is Empty (Null) if it contains no elements.
 The Empty Set is written as 

 The Empty Set is a subset of every set

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Sets

 Finite and Infinite Sets

 X is a set. If there exists a nonnegative integer n such
that X has n elements, then X is called a finite set with n
elements.
 If a set is not finite, then it is an infinite set.
 Examples:
 Y = {1,2,3} is a finite set
 P = {red, blue, yellow} is a finite set
 E , the set of all even integers, is an infinite set
  , the Empty Set, is a finite set with 0 elements

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Sets
 Cardinality of Sets
 Let S be a finite set with n distinct elements,
where n ≥ 0. Then |S| = n , where the
cardinality (number of elements) of S is n
 Example:

 If P = {red, blue, yellow}, then |P| = 3

 Singleton

 A set with only one element is a singleton

 Example:

 H = { 4 }, |H| = 1, H is a singleton

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Sets
 Power Set
 For any set X ,the power set of X ,written P(X),is
the set of all subsets of X
 Example:
 If X = {red, blue, yellow}, then P(X) = {  ,
{red}, {blue}, {yellow}, {red,blue}, {red,
yellow}, {blue, yellow}, {red, blue, yellow} }
 Universal Set
 An arbitrarily chosen, but fixed set

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Sets
 Venn Diagrams
 Abstract visualization
of a Universal set, U
as a rectangle, with all
subsets of U shown as
circles.
 Shaded portion
represents the
corresponding set
 Example:
 In Figure 1, Set X,

shaded, is a subset
of the Universal set,
U

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 Set Operations and Venn
Diagrams
 Union of Sets

Example: If X = {1,2,3,4,5} and Y = {5,6,7,8,9}, then

XUY = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}

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 Sets
 Intersection of Sets

Example: If X = {1,2,3,4,5} and Y = {5,6,7,8,9}, then X ∩ Y = {5}

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 Sets
 Disjoint Sets

Example: If X = {1,2,3,4,} and Y = {6,7,8,9}, then X ∩ Y = 

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 Sets
 Difference

• Example: If X = {a,b,c,d} and Y =

{c,d,e,f}, then X – Y = {a,b} and Y – X =
{e,f}

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 Sets

 Complement

The complement of a set X with respect to a universal set U,

denoted by X , is defined to be X = {x |x  U, but x  X}

Example: If U = {a,b,c,d,e,f} and X = {c,d,e,f}, then X = {a,b}

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Sets

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Sets
 Ordered Pair
 X and Y are sets. If x  X and y  Y, then an
ordered pair is written (x,y)
 Order of elements is important. (x,y) is not
necessarily equal to (y,x)
 Cartesian Product
 The Cartesian product of two sets X and Y ,written X ×
Y ,is the set
 X × Y ={(x,y)|x ∈ X , y ∈ Y}
 For any set X, X ×  =  =  × X
 Example:
 X = {a,b}, Y = {c,d}
 X × Y = {(a,c), (a,d), (b,c), (b,d)}
 Y × X = {(c,a), (d,a), (c,b), (d,b)}

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 Computer Representation of Sets
 A Set may be stored in a computer in an array as an
unordered list
 Problem: Difficult to perform operations on the set.

 Linked List
 Solution: use Bit Strings (Bit Map)
 A Bit String is a sequence of 0s and 1s
 Length of a Bit String is the number of digits in the
string
 Elements appear in order in the bit string
 A 0 indicates an element is absent, a 1 indicates
that the element is present
 A set may be implemented as a file

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Computer Implementation of Set
Operations

 Bit Map
 File
 Operations
 Intersection
 Union
 Element of
 Difference
 Complement
 Power Set

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Special “Sets” in CS

 Multiset
 Ordered Set

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Outline
 Introduction
 Sets
 Logic & Boolean Algebra
 Proof Techniques
 Counting Principles
 Combinatorics
 Relations,Functions
 Graphs/Trees
 Boolean Functions, Circuits

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 Logic: Learning Objectives
 Learn about statements (propositions)
 Learn how to use logical connectives to combine
statements
 Explore how to draw conclusions using various argument
forms
 Become familiar with quantifiers and predicates
 CS
 Boolean data type
 If statement
 Impact of negations
 Implementation of quantifiers
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 Mathematical Logic
 Definition: Methods of reasoning, provides rules
and techniques to determine whether an
argument is valid
 Theorem: a statement that can be shown to be
true (under certain conditions)
 Example: If x is an even integer, then x + 1 is an
odd integer
 This statement is true under the condition that x is an integer
is true

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 Mathematical Logic
 A statement, or a proposition, is a declarative sentence
that is either true or false, but not both
 Uppercase letters denote propositions
 Examples:

 P: 2 is an even number (true)

 Q: 7 is an even number (false)

 R: A is a vowel (true)

 The following are not propositions:

 P: My cat is beautiful

 Q: My house is big

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 Mathematical Logic
 Truth value
 One of the values “truth” (T) or “falsity” (F)
assigned to a statement
 Negation
 The negation of P, written P, is the statement
obtained by negating statement P
 Example:
 P: A is a consonant
 P: it is the case that A is not a consonant
 Truth Table
P P
T F
F T

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 Mathematical Logic
 Conjunction
 Let P and Q be statements.The conjunction of P and Q,
written P ^ Q , is the statement formed by joining statements
P and Q using the word “and”
 The statement P ^ Q is true if both p and q are true;
otherwise P ^ Q is false
 Truth Table for Conjunction:

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 Mathematical Logic
 Disjunction
 Let P and Q be statements. The disjunction of P and

Q, written P v Q , is the statement formed by joining

statements P and Q using the word “or”
 The statement P v Q is true if at least one of the

statements P and Q is true; otherwise P v Q is false

 The symbol v is read “or”

 Truth Table for Disjunction:

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 Mathematical Logic
 Implication
 Let P and Q be statements.The statement “if P then Q”
is called an implication or condition.
 The implication “if P then Q” is written P  Q
 P is called the hypothesis, Q is called the conclusion
 Truth Table for Implication:

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 Mathematical Logic
 Implication
 Let P: Today is Sunday and Q: I will wash the car.
 PQ:
If today is Sunday, then I will wash the car
 The converse of this implication is written Q  P
If I wash the car, then today is Sunday
 The inverse of this implication is P  Q
If today is not Sunday, then I will not wash the car
Q  P
 The contrapositive of this implication is
If I do not wash the car, then today is not Sunday

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 Mathematical Logic
 Biimplication
 Let P and Q be statements. The statement “P if and only if
Q” is called the biimplication or biconditional of P and Q
 The biconditional “P if and only if Q” is written P  Q
 “P if and only if Q”
 Truth Table for the Biconditional:

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Mathematical Logic
 Precedence of logical
connectives is:
  highest


^ second highest
 v third highest
 → fourth highest
 ↔ fifth highest

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 Mathematical Logic
 Tautology
 A statement formula A is said to be a tautology
if the truth value of A is T for any assignment of
the truth values T and F to the statement
variables occurring in A
 Contradiction
 A statement formula A is said to be a
contradiction if the truth value of A is F for any
assignment of the truth values T and F to the
statement variables occurring in A

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 Mathematical Logic
 Logically Implies
 A statement formula A is said to logically imply a
statement formula B if the statement formula A → B is
a tautology. If A logically implies B, then symbolically
we write A → B
 Logically Equivalent
 A statement formula A is said to be logically equivalent
to a statement formula B if the statement formula
A ↔ B is a tautology. If A is logically equivalent to B ,
then symbolically we write A  B

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Inference and Substitution

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Quantifiers and First Order Logic
 Predicate or Propositional Function
 Let x be a variable and D be a set; P(x)
is a sentence
 Then P(x) is called a predicate or
propositional function with respect to
the set D if for each value of x in D, P(x)
is a statement; i.e., P(x) is true or false
 Moreover, D is called the domain
(universe) of discourse and x is called
the free variable

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Quantifiers and First Order Logic
 Universal Quantifier
 Let P(x) be a predicate and let D be the domain of the
discourse. The universal quantification of P(x) is the
statement:
 For all x, P(x) or
 For every x, P(x)
The symbol
is read as “for all and every”



x, P ( x) or x  D, P( x)
 Two-place predicate:
x, y, P ( x, y )

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Quantifiers and First Order Logic
 Existential Quantifier
 Let P(x) be a predicate and let D be the universe of
discourse. The existential quantification of P(x) is the
statement:
 There exists x, P(x)
 The symbolis read as “there exists”
x  D, P ( x) or x, P( x)


 Bound Variable
The variable appearing in:
x, P ( orx) x, P ( x)


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Quantifiers and First Order Logic
 Negation of Predicates (DeMorgan’s Laws)

x, P ( x)  x, P ( x)
 Example:
 If P(x) is the statement “x has won a race” where the

domain of discourse is all runners, then the universal

quantification of P(x) is x, P ( x, )i.e., every runner has
won a race. The negation of this statement is “it is not the
case that every runner has won a race. Therefore there
exists at least one runner who has not won a race.
Therefore: x, P ( x)

 x, P ( x)  x, P ( x)

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51
 Two-Element Boolean Algebra

The Boolean Algebra on B= {0, 1} is defined as follows:

+01 · 01 ¯
0 01 0 00 0 1
1 11 1 01 1 0

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 Duality and the Fundamental
Boolean Algebra Properties
 Duality
 The dual of any Boolean theorem is also a theorem.
 Parentheses must be used to preserve operator

precedence.

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 Logic and CS
 Logic is basis of ALU (Boolean Algebra)
 Logic is crucial to IF statements
 AND
 OR
 NOT
 Implementation of quantifiers
 Looping
 Database Query Languages
 Relational Algebra
 Relational Calculus
 SQL

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