Shell Scripting

Steps in Writing a Shell Script

• Write a script file using vi:
– The first line identifies the file as a bash script.
#!/bin/bash
– Comments begin with a # and end at the end of the line.
• give the user (and others, if (s)he wishes) permission
to execute it.
– chmod +x filename
• Run from local dir
– ./filename
• Run with a trace – echo commands after expansion
– bash –x ./filename
 Variables
• Create a variable
– Variablename=value (no spaces, no $)
– read variablename (no $)
• Access a variable's value
– $variablename
• Set a variable
– Variablename=value (no spaces, no $ before variablename)
• Sample:
wget
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withvar
 Positional Parameters
Positional Parameter What It References
$0 References the name of the script
$# Holds the value of the number of positional parameters
$* Lists all of the positional parameters
$@ Means the same as $@, except when enclosed in double
quotes
"$*" Expands to a single argument (e.g., "$1 $2 $3")
"$@" Expands to separate arguments (e.g., "$1" "$2" "$3")
$1 .. ${10} References individual positional parameters

set Command to reset the script arguments

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e/scripts/envvar
 Environment Variables
• set | more – shows all the environment variables that
exist
• Change
– PS1='\u>'
– PATH=$PATH:/home/pe16132/bin1
– IFS=':'
– IFS is Internal Field Separator
• Sample
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r
 $* and $@

• $* and $@ can be used as part of the list in a

for loop or can be used as par of it.
• When expanded $@ and $* are the same
unless enclosed in double quotes.
– $* is evaluated to a single string while $@ is
evaluated to a list of separate word.
 Variable Scope & Processes
• Variables are shared only with their own process,
unless exported
• x=Hi – define x in current process
• sh – launch a new process
• echo $x – cannot see x from parent process
• x=bye
• <ctrl d> -- exit new process
• echo $x -- see x in old process did not change
• demoShare – cannot see x
• . demoShare – run with dot space runs in current shell
• export x – exports the variable to make available to its children
• demoShare – now it can see x
wget
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hare
 The read Command (continued)
Read from stdin (screen)
Read until new line

Format Meaning
read answer Reads a line from stdin into the variable answer
read first last Reads a line from stdin up to the whitespace, putting the
first word in first and the rest of the of line into last
read Reads a line from stdin and assigns it to REPLY
read –a Reads a list of word into an array called arrayname
arrayname

read –p prompt Prints a prompt, waits for input and stores input in REPLY
read –r line Allows the input to contain a backslash.
 Shortcut to Display Lots of Words

• Here file:
– You give it the end token at the start
– Type a list
– Type the end token to end
– cat << Here
words
Here
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nosy
 Numbers
• Assumes variables are strings
• Math operations on strings are essentially
ignored
– Normalvar=1
– 3+$normalvar yields 3+1
• Must force consideration as number
– Create variable with declare - i
– Surround your mathematical statement with (( ))
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numbers
 Different Base Nums: Octal, Hex

• Leading 0 in a number makes it be interpreted

as octal so 017 represents the decimal # 15
• Leading 0x in a number makes it be
interpreted as hex.
• Leading <Base># in a number makes it be
interpreted as that base.
 Floating Point Arithmetic

• Bash does not support floating point

arithmetic but bc, awk and nawk utilities all
do.
SIEGFRIE@panther:~$ n=`echo "scale=3; 13 / 2" | bc`
SIEGFRIE@panther:~$ echo $n
6.500
SIEGFRIE@panther:~$ product=`nawk -v x=2.45 -v
y=3.123 'BEGIN{printf "%.2f\n", x*y}'`
SIEGFRIE@panther:~$ echo $product
7.65
 Test Command
• Command to test true or false:
– test
– [ the comparison ]
• [ means 'test'
• Spaces around [
• ] for looks only
– Logical
• -o for OR
• -a for AND

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fscript
 Using test For Numbers And Strings – Old
Format
if test expression
then
command
fi
or
if [ string/numeric expression]
then
command
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ote/scripts/ifscript
 Using test For Strings – New Format

if [[ string expression ]] ; then

command
elif
fi
or
if (( numeric expression ))
NOTE: new line for then or ; then

wget
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ripts/ifscript
 Testing Strings vs Numbers
Comparing numbers
• remember (( ))
• -eq , -ne, -gt, -ge, -lt, -le
Comparing strings
• Remember [[ ]]
• Remember space after [
• =
• !=
• Unary string tests
– [ string ] (not null)
– -z (0 length)
– -n (some length)
– wget
-l returns the length of the string

http://home.adelphi.edu/~pe16132/csc271/note/sc
ripts/ifscriptnum
 Echo
Echo command is well appreciated when trying to debug scripts.
Syntax : echo {options} string
Options: -e : expand \ (back-slash ) special characters
-n : do not output a new-line at the end.
String can be a “weakly quoted” or a ‘strongly quoted’ string. In
the weakly quoted strings the references to variables are
replaced by the value of those variables before the output.
As well as the variables some special backslash_escaped symbols
are expanded during the output. If such expansions are
required the –e option must be used.
test Command Operators – String Test
Test Operator Tests True if

[ string1 = string2 ] String1 is equal to String2 (space

surrounding = is necessary
[ string1 != string2 ] String1 is not equal to String2 (space
surrounding != is not necessary
[ string ] String is not null.
[ -z string ] Length of string is zero.
[ -n string ] Length of string is nonzero.
[ -l string ] Length of string (number of character)

[[ ]] gives some pattern matching

[[ $name == [Tt]om ]] matches if $name contains Tom or tom
[[ $name == [^t]om ]] matches if $name contains any character but t followed by om
[[ $name == ?o* ]] matches if $name contains any character followed by o and then
whatever number of characters after that.
Just shell patterns, not regex
 test Command Operators – Logical Tests

Test Operator Test True If

[ string1 –a string2 ] Both string1 and string 2 are true.
[ string1 –o string2 ] Both string1 or string 2 are true.
[ ! string ] Not a string1 match

Test operator Tests True if

[[ pattern1 && Pattern2 ]] Both pattern1 and pattern2 are true
[[ pattern1 || Pattern2 ]] Either pattern1 or pattern2 is true
[[ !pattern ]] Not a pattern match

pattern1 and pattern2 can contain metacharacters.

 test Command Operators – Integer Tests

Test operator Tests True if

[ int1 –eq int2 ] int1 = int2
[ int1 –ne int2 ] int1 ≠ int2
[ int1 –gt int2 ] int1 > int2
[ int1 –ge int2 ] int1 ≥ int2
[ int1 –lt int2 ] int1 < int2
[ int1 –le int2 ] int1 ≤ int2
 test Command Operators – File Tests

Test Operator Test True If

[ file1 –nt file2 ] True if file1 is newer than file2*
[ file1 –ot file2 ] True if file1 is older than file2*
[ file1 –ef file2 ] True if file1 and file2 have the same
device and inode numbers.

* according to modfication date and time

 File Testing
Test Operator Test True if:
-b filename Block special file
-c filename Character special file
-d filename Directory existence
-e filename File existence
-f filename Regular file existence and not a directory
-G filename True if file exists and is owned nu the effective group id
-g filename Set-group-ID is set
-k filename Sticky bit is set
-L filename File is a symbolic link
 File Testing (continued)
Test Operator Test True if:
-p filename File is a named pipe
-O filename File exists and is owned by the effective user ID
-r filename file is readable
-S filename file is a socket
-s filename file is nonzero size
-t fd True if fd (file descriptor) is opened on a terminal
-u filename Set-user-id bit is set
-w filename File is writable
-x filename File is executable
 Exit Status

• Every process running in Linux has an exit

status code, where 0 indicates successful
conclusion of the process and nonzero values
indicates failure to terminate normally.
• Linux and UNIX provide ways of determining
an exit status and to use it in shell
programming.
• The ? in bash is a shell variable that contains a
numeric value representing the exit status.
 Exit Status Demo

• All commands return something

• Standard 0 = success and 1 = failure
– Backwards 0/1 from a true/false boolean
grep 'not there' myscript
echo $?
1= failure
grep 'a' myscript
echo $?
0 = success
exit Command and the ? Variable

• exit is used to terminate the script; it is

mainly to used to exit the script if some
condition is true.
• exit has one parameter – a number ranging
from 0 to 255, indicating if is ended
successfully (0) or unsuccessfully (nonzero).
• The argument given to the script is stored in
the variable ?
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s/ifbigfiles
Looping in Bash – The for Command
• Loop through a list – like java for each loop (pg 37)
for variable in word_list
do
command(s)
done
• variable will take on the value of each of the words
in the list.
• To get a list, you can execute a subcommand that
returns a list inside $( ) ex $(ls)

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s/forscript
 while Command
• The while command evaluates the command
following it and, if its exit status is 0, the commands
in the body of the loop are execeuted.
• The loop continues until the exit status is nonzero.
• Format:
while command
do
command(s)
done

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s/numm
 The until Command

• until works like the while command, except it

execute the loop if the exit status is nonzero
(i.e., the command failed).
• Format:
until command
do
command(s)
done
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s/hour
 The select Command
• The select command allows the user to create menus
in bash.
• A menu of numerically listed items is displayed to
stderr, with PS3 used to promp the user for input.
• Format:
select var in wordlist
do
command(s)
done

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ts/runit
 Commands Used With select
• select will automatically repeat and has do
mechanism of its own to terminate. For this
reason, the exit command is used to
terminate.
• We use break to force an immediate exit from
a loop (but not the program).
• We use shift to shift the parameter list one
or more places to the left, removing the
displaced parameters.
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 SELECT for a menu

• – creates menus that don’t stop until you break

out of the loop
– Syntax:
• PS3=”Whatever you want your prompt to be for the menu “
• select var in options list (and use ‘ ‘ to surround 2 word
options)
• do
• Command(s)
• done
– Ex: select program in `ls –F` pwd date ‘some other
option’ exit
 File IO
• read command
– Reads from stdin unless directed with < or |
ls | while read line
do
echo The line is "$line"
done
• Write to a file using redirection >
ls | while read line
do
echo The line is "$line"
done > outputfile

• Write to a temp file that is unique – use pid $$

wget
done > tmp$$
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ts/numberit
 Functions
• Define function before use
• Define function using: functionname() { }
• Call function using: functionname parm1 parm2 …
• Function accesses parameters to it as $1, $2 ..
• Send back information with return statement
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nction
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nction2
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nction3
 Trap an Interrupt

• Define the action that will happen when the

interrupt occurs using: trap ‘the action to do
when the interrupt occurs ‘ the signal:
– trap 'rm -f /tmp/my_tmp_file_$$' INT
• When the signal arrives, that command will
execute, and then it will continue with
whatever statement it was processing.
• You can use a function instead of just one
wget
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ts/trapper
 Case
If/elif/else construct
• Syntax:
– case variable
• value1 )
– commands
– ;;
• value2 )
– commands
– ;;
• ) #default
– Commands
– ;;
– esac
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 Summary

• Variables
• Decision - If / case / select (embedded while)
– Numbers vs Strings
– Unary tests
– File tests
• Loop – for/ while / until
– File IO
• Functions
• Trap
I/O and Redirection
 Standard I/O
• Standard Output (stdout)
– default place to which programs write
• Standard Input (stdin)
– default place from which programs read
• Standard Error (stderr)
– default place where errors are reported
• To demonstrate -- cat
– Echoes everything you typed in with an <enter>
– Quits when you press Ctrl-d at a new line -- (EOF)
 Redirecting Standard
Output
• cat file1 file2 > file3
– concatenates file1 and file2 into file3
– file3 is created if not there
• cat file1 file2 >! file3
– file3 is clobbered if there
• cat file1 file2 >> file3
– file3 is created if not there
– file3 is appended to if it is there
• cat > file3
– file3 is created from whatever user provides from
standard input
Redirecting Standard Error
• Generally direct standard output and standard
error to the same place:
obelix[1] > cat myfile >& yourfile
• If myfile exists, it is copied into yourfile
• If myfile does not exist, an error message
cat: myfile: No such file or directoryis copied in yourfile
• In tcsh, to write standard output and standard
error into different files:
obelix[2] > (cat myfile > yourfile) >& yourerrorfile
• In sh (for shell scripts), standard error is
redirected differently
– cat myfile > yourfile 2> yourerrorfile
 Redirecting Standard Input
• obelix[1] > cat < oldfile > newfile
• A more useful example:
– obelix[2] > tr string1 string2
• Read from standard input.
• Character n of string1 translated to character n
of string2.
• Results written to standard output.
– Example of use:
obelix[3] > tr aeoiu eoiua
obelix[4] > tr a-z A-Z < file1 > file2
 /dev/null
• /dev/null
– A virtual file that is always empty.
– Copy things to here and they disappear.
• cp myfile /dev/null
• mv myfile /dev/null
– Copy from here and get an empty file.
• cp /dev/null myfile
– Redirect error messages to this file
• (ls -l > recordfile) >& /dev/null
• Basically, all error messages are discarded.
Filters (1)
 Filters (2)
• grep patternstr:
– Read stdin and write lines containing patternstr to stdout
obelix[1] > grep "unix is easy" < myfile1 > myfile2
– Write all lines of myfile1 containing phrase unix is easy to
myfile2
• wc:
– Count the number of chars/words/lines on stdin
– Write the resulting statistics to stdout
• sort:
– Sort all the input lines in alphabetical order and write to the
standard output.
 Pipes
• The pipe:
– Connects stdout of one program with stdin of another
– General form:
command1 | command2
– stdout of command1 used as stdin for command2
– Example:
obelix[1] > cat readme.txt | grep unix | wc -l
• An alternative way (not efficient) is to:
obelix[2] > grep unix < readme.txt > tmp
obelix[3] > wc -l < tmp
• Can also pipe stderr: command1 |& command2
Redirecting and Pipes (1)
 Redirecting and Pipes (2)
• Note: The name of a command always comes first
on the line.
• There may be a tendency to say:
obelix[1] > readme.txt > grep unix | wc -l
– This is WRONG!!!
– Your shell will go looking for a program named
readme.txt
• To do it correctly, many alternatives!
obelix[1] > cat readme.txt | grep unix | wc -l
obelix[2] > grep unix < readme.txt | wc -l
obelix[3] > grep unix readme.txt | wc -l
obelix[4] > grep -c unix readme.txt
The ‘grep’ Command
 What is grep?

• grep is a command that searches through the

input file for a specified pattern
• When grep finds a match to the pattern, it
prints the entire line to standard output
• grep general structure:
– grep options pattern input_file_names
 Options

• grep has a variety of options that can execute

a wide range of operations once a match is
found
• This presentation is an overview of some of
the more basic/common options
• For all available options and more in depth
explanations, please see Unix resource 3 on
the course website titled “Grep command
documentation” or check the man page for
grep in your terminal
 Matching Control

• ‘-i’
– Ignores case.
• ‘-v’
– Inverts the matching. When used, grep will print
out lines that do not match the pattern
• ‘-e pattern’
– Pattern is the pattern. This can be used to specify
multiple patterns, or if the pattern starts with a ‘-’.
A line only has to contain one of the patterns to be
matched.
 Examples using ‘-i’, ’-v’, and ‘-e’

• The file below was used for these examples

 General Output Control
‘-c’
Suppress normal output and instead print out a count of
matching lines for each input file
‘-l’
Suppress normal output and print the name of each file that
contains at least one match
‘-L’
Suppress normal output. Print the name of each file that
does not contain any matches
Note: both the ‘-l’ and ‘-L’ options will stop searching a
file once a match is found
 Examples using ‘-c’, ’-l’, and ‘-L’

• Two files were used and specified below

 Output Line Prefix Control

• ‘-n’
– Prefixes each line of output with the line number
from the input file the match was found on
• ‘-H’
– Prefix each line of output with the input file name
that the match was found in
• ‘-T’
– Makes sure that the actual line content (or
whatever content comes after the ‘-T’) lands on a
tab stop
 Examples using ‘-H’, ’-n’, and ‘-T’

• Two files were used and specified below

 Context Line Control

• ‘-A num’
– Print num lines of trailing context after matching
lines
• ‘-B num’
– Print num lines of leading context before matching
lines
• ‘-C num’ or ‘-num’
– Print num lines of leading and trailing output
context
 Examples using ‘-A’, ’-B’, and ‘-C’

• The file below was used for these examples

 Special Characters
‘.’ The period ‘.’ matches any single character.
‘?’ The preceding item is optional and will be matched at
most once.
‘*’ The preceding item will be matched zero or more times.
‘+’ The preceding item will be matched one or more times.
‘{n}’ The preceding item is matched exactly n times.
‘{n,}’ The preceding item is matched n or more times.
‘{,m}’ The preceding item is matched at most m times.
‘{n,m}’ The preceding item is matched at least n times, but
not more than m times.
Examples using ‘.’, ‘*’, and ‘?’
 Basic vs Extended Regular Expressions

• ‘-G’
– Interpret pattern as basic regular expression (BRE).
This is the default.
• ‘-E’
– Interpret pattern as extended regular expression
(ERE)
• When using basic regular expression some
special characters (like ‘?’ in the previous
example) loose their special meaning and
must have a ‘\’, the escape character, before
 BRE and ERE Difference

• Note that without the ‘\’ in the BRE call

(example 3), the ‘?’ is seen as a normal
 Bracket Expressions

• A bracket expression is a list of characters

enclosed by ‘[‘ and ‘]’. It matches any single
character in the list
• However, if the first character in the list is ‘^’,
it matches any character not in the list
• A range can be done by using ‘-’ in a bracket
expression
– [0-5] is the same as [012345]
• Some ranges are pre-defined in character
classes
Bracket Expression Example
 Cut Command
• Linux cut command is useful for selecting a specific
column of a file. It is used to cut a specific sections by
byte position, character, and field and writes them to
standard output. It cuts a line and extracts the text
data. It is necessary to pass an argument with it;
otherwise, it will throw an error message.
• To cut a specific section, it is necessary to specify the
delimiter. A delimiter will decide how the sections
are separated in a text file. Delimiters can be a space
(' '), a hyphen (-), a slash (/), or anything else. After '-
f' option, the column number is mentioned.
• Syntax:
• cut OPTION... [FILE]... 66
 Cut Options
• -c, --characters=LIST: It is used to select the specified characters.
• -d, --delimiter=DELIM: It is used to cut a specific section by a delimiter.
• -f, --fields=LIST: It is used to select the specific fields. It also prints any line
that does not contain any delimiter character, unless the -s option is
specified.
• -n: It is used to ignore any option.
• --complement: It is used to complement the set of selected bytes,
characters or fields
• -s, --only-delimited: It is used to not print lines that do not have
delimiters.
• --output-delimiter=STRING: This option is specified to use a STRING as an
output delimiter; The default is to use "input delimiter".
• -z, --zero-terminated: It is used if line delimiter is NUL, not newline.

67
Introduction
AWK is a great language. Awk is geared
towards text processing and report
generation, yet features many well-
designed features that allow for serious
programming. And, unlike some
languages, awk's syntax is familiar, and
borrows some of the best parts of
AWK Programming languages like C, python, and bash
(although, technically, awk was created
before both python and bash). Awk is
one of those languages that, once
learned, will become a key part of one’s
strategic coding arsenal.
Awk stands for the names of its authors
“Aho, Weinberger, and Kernighan”
SYNTAX

Syntax 1 - Generic Syntax:

awk 'BEGIN {start_action} {action} END {stop_action}' filename

Syntax 2 – Pattern Matching :

awk '/search pattern1/ {Actions} /search pattern2/ {Actions}' file

[Note: Either search pattern or action(s) are optional, but not both.]
THE first awk

Command • $ awk '{ print }' /etc/passwd

Output • Print the contents of the /etc/file password

• In awk, curly braces are used to group blocks of code

together, similar to C. In awk, when a print command
Explanation appears by itself, the full contents of the current line
are printed.

• The following command accomplishes the same

thing.
Note/Remarks • awk '{ print $0 }' /etc/passwd
• $0 stands for the entire line, for each record.
Printing Multiple fields

Purpose • Printing multiple columns.

• awk '{print $k}' input_file

Command • awk '{print $p,$q}' input_file
• awk '{print $p$q$r}' input_file

• Prints the kth column of a space separated file

Output • Prints pth and qth column separated by space.
• Prints p,q & rth column of a file without any space

Explanation • Space is considered as the default OFS i.e. Output Field Separator.

• The following command won’t retrieve the kth column of the CSV file.
Note/Remarks • awk '{print $k}' input_csv_file
Printing Multiple fields
of specially delimited files
• Printing multiple columns of files with delimiters
Purpose other than space, say comma. Files having comma as
the delimiter are called CSV files.

• awk 'BEGIN{FS=","} {print $p}' input_file (OR)

Command • awk -F"," '{print $p}' input_file
• awk 'BEGIN {OFS="|"} {print $4,$5}' input_file

• Prints the pth column of a CSV file

Output • Separates the 4th and 5th fields by pipe while printing
to stdout.

• FS and OFS respectively mean (Input) Field Separator

Explanation & Output Field Separator.

• We can also use any number or string or even Regex

Note/Remarks as FS.
The begin and end blocks
• If we need to execute initialization code before awk
begins processing the text from the input file, a
BEGIN block is used.
BEGIN • Because the BEGIN block is evaluated before awk
starts processing the input file, it's an excellent place
BLOCK to initialize the FS (field separator) variable, print a
heading, or initialize other global variables that we’ll
reference later in the program.

• Awk executes this block after all lines in the input file
have been processed. Typically, the END block is
END used to perform final calculations or print
BLOCK summaries that should appear at the end of the
output stream.
Regular expressions & blocks

Awk allows the use of regular

expressions to selectively execute Of course, we can use more
an individual block of code, complicated regular
depending on whether or not the expressions. Here's a script
regular expression matches the that will print only lines that
current line. Here's an example contain a floating point
script that outputs only those number:
lines that contain the character /[0-9]+\.[0-9]*/ { print }
sequence foo:
/foo/ { print }
AWK BUILT IN VARIABLES
NF

• NF stands for Number of field.

• Example:
• Purpose: Number of columns in each row.
• Code: awk '{print NF}' input_file

NR

• NR stads for Number of Record.

• Example:
• Purpose: Display line numbers for each row.
• Code: awk '{print NR}' input_file
• Purpose: Total lines in a file
• Code: awk 'END {print NR}' input_file

FS

• Discussed in earlier slides.

• Additionally FS=“\t+” is used to process fields separated by one or more tabs.
• FS="foo[0-9][0-9][0-9]” is used to consider a string comprising of foo appended by three digits as the field
separator.

OFS

• Discussed in earlier slides.

Conditional statements

Checks if the 9th

field of the input • awk '{ if($9 == "HONDA") print $0;}' input_file
file contains
HONDA
Prints only those
records where the • awk -F"," '{if($1>4) print $0;}' list1.txt
first field contains
value more than 4
Prints records if the • awk -F, '{if($3=="Jadavpur")print $0;}' list1.txt
third field holds • awk -F, '$3~/Jadavpur/' list1.txt
Jadavpur
Prints records if any
field contains • awk -F, '/Jadavpur/' list1.txt
Jadavpur
Print lines matching • $ awk '/Shibpur/ > /Jadavpur/' list1.txt
string A or B
Conditional statements(contd.)

awk -F, 'BEGIN{count=0;}

Count $3~/Ohio/{count=count+1;}
all END{print count}'
employ list1.txt
ees
who
belong
to Ohio

Awk also allows the use of boolean operators "||" (for "logical or") and "&&"(for
"logical and") to allow the creation of more complex boolean expressions:
( $1 == "foo" ) && ( $2 == "bar" ) { print }
This example will print only those lines where field one equals foo and field two
equals bar.
NUMERIC variables
(find number of blank lines in a file)

So far, we've either printed strings, the entire line, or specific fields. However,
awk also allows us to perform both integer and floating point math. Using
mathematical expressions, it's very easy to write a script that counts the
number of blank lines in a file. Here's one that does just that:
BEGIN { x=0 }
/^$/ { x=x+1 }
END { print "I found " x " blank lines. :)" }

In the BEGIN block, we initialize our integer variable x to zero. Then, each time
awk encounters a blank line, awk will execute the x=x+1 statement,
incrementing x. After all the lines have been processed, the END block will
execute, and awk will print out a final summary, specifying the number of blank
lines it found.
Plenty of operators

Another nice thing about awk is its full package of mathematical operators. In
addition to standard addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, awk
allows us to use the exponent operator "^", the modulo (remainder) operator
"%", and a bunch of other handy assignment operators borrowed from C.
These include pre- and post-increment/decrement ( i++, --foo ),
add/sub/mult/div assign operators ( a+=3, b*=2, c/=2.2, d-=6.2 ). But that's not
all -- we also get handy modulo/exponent assign ops as well ( a^=2, b%=4 ).
Looping:

Calcula
te • awk 'BEGIN { for(i=1;i<=10;i++) print "square of", i, "is",i*i; }'
square
of
numbe
rs from
1 to 10.
String functions in awk

String Functions used in AWK

• Index(search,string)
• length(string)
• split(string,array,separator)
• substr(string,position)
• substr(string,position,max)
• tolower(string)
• toUpper(string)
Report generation using awk

Employee Details with Educational Qualifications

awk –F”,”
'BEGIN {print "EmpID\tQualification\tInstitute";}
{print $1,"\t",$2,"\t",$3;}
END{print "REPORT GENERATED.\n";}'
list1.txt
THANK YOU

83