Discrete

Mathematics
5. G r a p h s & Trees
What are Graphs? Not

• General m e a n i n g in e v e r y d a y
A plot or chart of numerical data using a
math:
coordinate system.
• Technical m e a n i n g in d i s c r e t e
m at hem atics:
A particular class of discrete structures (to be
defined) that is useful for representing relations and
has a convenient webby-looking graphical
representation.

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Simple Graphs
Visual Representation
of a Simple Graph

• T h e g r a p h in w h i c h e a c h e d g e
c o n n e c t s t w o different vertices a n d
w h e r e n o t w o e d g e s c onn e c t t h e
s a m e pair o f vertices

• C o r r e s p o n d to s y m m e t r i c binary
relations R.

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Simple Graphs
Visual Representation
of a Simple Graph
• Definition:
A simple graph
G=(V,E) c o n s i s t s of:
− a s e t V o f vertices or nodes (V c o r r e s p o n d s to
t h e u n i v e r s e o f t h e relation R), a n d
− a s e t E o f edges / arcs / links: u n o r d e r e d
pairs o f [distinct?] e l e m e n t s u,v  V,
s u c h that uRv.

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
 Example of a Simple
• Graph
Let V b e t h e s e t o f s t a t e s in t h e far-
sout heastern U.S.:
V={FL, GA, AL, M S, LA, SC, TN, NC}
• Let E={{u,v}|u adjoins v}
{FL,LA},{GA,AL},
={{FL,GA},{FL,AL},{FL,MS}, NC
TN
{AL,MS},
{MS,LA},{GA,SC}, SC
MS AL
{GA,TN},
{SC,NC},{NC,TN}, GA
{MS,TN}, LA
{MS,AL}} FL

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
 M ultigraph s
• Like s i m p l e g r a p h s , bu t t h e r e m a y b e more than
one
e d g e c onne ct i ng t w o g i v e n n o d e s .

• Definition:
A multigraph G=(V, E, f ) c o n s i s t s o f a s e t V o f
vertices, a s e t E 
f:E{{u,v}|u,vV o f e d g e s ( a s primitive objects),Parallel
uv}.
a n d a function edges
• Example:
n o d e s are cities a n d
e d g e s are s e g m e n t s o f major
highways.
Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
Pseudographs
• Like a multigraph, bu t e d g e s
c onn e ct i ng a n o d e to itself are
a l l owe d.
• Definition:
A pseudograph G=(V, E, f ) w h e r e
f:E{{u,v}|u,vV}. E d g e eE is loop
a loop if f(e)={u,u}={u}.
• Example:
n o d e s are c a m p s i t e s
in a state p a r k a n d e d g e s
are hiking trails t h r o u g h t h e
woods.
Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
Directed Graphs
• C o r r e s p o n d to arbitrary binary
relations R, w h i c h n e e d not b e
symmetric.
• Definition:
A directed graph (V, E) c o n s i s t s o f a s e t o f
vertices
V a n d a binary relation E o n V.

• Example:
V = p e o p l e , E={(x,y) | x l o v e s y}

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Walk, loop, sling, and path
• Definition:
− A walk is a s e q u e n c e x 0 , x 1 , …, x n of the
v er tices o f a d i g r a p h s u c h that x i x i+1 , 0≤i≤n-1,
is an e d g e .
− T h e length of a walk is t h e n u m b e r o f e d g e s
in t h e walk.
− If a w a l k h o l d s x i ≠x j (i≠j) i,j=0, …, n, e x c e p t x 0 ,
x n (i.e x 0 =x n ), t h e w a l k is c a lle d a cycle.
− A loop is a c y c l e o f l e n g t h one.
− A sling is a c y c l e o f l e n g t h two.
− A w a l k is a path if n o e d g e is r e p e a t e d m o r e
than o n ce.

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
 Directed Multigraphs
• Like d i r e c t e d g r a p h s , bu t t h e r e m a y b e m o r e
than o n e arc f r o m a n o d e to another.
• Definition:
A directed multigraph G=(V, E, f ) c o n s i s t s o f a s e t
V o f vertices, a s e t E o f e d g e s , a n d a function
f:EVV.

• Example:
− The W W W is a directed multigraph.
− V=web p a g e s , E=hyperlinks.

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
 Types of Graphs: Summary
• K e e p in m i n d this t e r m i no l ogy is not fully
standardized...

E dge M ultiple S elf-

T erm type edges ok? loops ok?
S im ple graph U ndir. No No
M ultigraph U ndir. Y es No
P seudograph U ndir. Y es Y es
D irected graph D irected No Y es
D irected m ultigraph D irected Y es Y es

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Graph Terminology
• Adjacent, connects, endpoints, degree, initial,
terminal, in-degree, out-degree, complete, cycles,
wheels, n-cubes, bipartite, subgraph, and union.

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Adjacency

Le t G b e an u nd ire c te d g r a p h w ith e d g e s e t
E.
Le t
eE b e (or m a p to) t h e pair {u,v}. Then
w e sa y:
• u, v are adjacent / neighbors / connected.
• E d g e e is incident with vertices u a n d v.
• E d g e e connects u a n d v.
• Vertices u a n d v are endpoints o f e d g e e.

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Degree of a Vertex
• Let G b e an u n d i r e c t e d g r a p h , vV a vertex.
• T h e degree o f v, d e g ( v ) , is its n u m b e r o f
incident e d g e s . ( E x c e p t that a n y s e l f -
l o o p s are c o u n t e d twice.)
• A vert ex wi t h d e g r e e 0 is isolated.
• A vert ex o f d e g r e e 1 is pendant.

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Handshaking Theorem
• Theorem:
− Let G b e an u n d i r e c t e d ( s i mp l e , multi-, or
p s e u d o - ) g r a p h wi t h vertex s e t V a n d e d g e
s e teE.
Th
n
∑deg(v)  2 E
vV
• Corollary:
− A n y u n d i r e c t e d g r a p h h a s an e v e n
n u m b e r o f vertices o f o d d d e g r e e .

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Directed Adjacency
• Let G b e a d i r e c t e d ( p o s s i b l y multi-)
g r a p h , a n d let e b e an e d g e o f G that is
(or m a p s to) (u,v). T h e n w e sa y:
− u is adjacent to v, v is adjacent from u
− e comes from u, e goes to v.
− e connects u to v, e goes from u to v
− t h e initial vertex o f e is u
− t h e terminal vertex o f e is v

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Directed Degree
• Definition:
Let G b e a d i r e c t e d g r a p h , v a vertex o f G.
− T h e in-degree o f v, deg  (v), is t h e
n u m b e r o f e d g e s g o i n g to v.
− T h e out-degree o f v, deg  (v), is t h e
n u m b e r o f e d g e s c o m i n g f r o m v.
− T h e degree o f v, deg(v)deg  (v)+deg  (v),
is t h e s u m o f v’s i n - d e g r e e a n d o u t -
degree.

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Directed Handshaking Theorem
• Theorem:
− Let G b e a d i r e c t e d ( p o s s i b l y multi-) g r a p h
wi t h vertex s e t V a n d e d g e s e t E.Then:
1
∑ deg 
(v)  ∑ deg (v) 
∑ deg(v)  E
vV
vV
2 vV

• N o t e that t h e d e g r e e o f a n o d e is
u n c h a n g e d b y w h e t h e r w e c o n s i d e r its
e d g e s to b e d i r e c t e d or undirected.

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Special Graph Structures

Speci al c a s e s o f u n d i r e c t e d g r a p h
structures:
• C o m p l e t e G r a p h s Kn
• C y c l e s Cn
• W h e e l s Wn
• n- Cube s Q n
• Bipartite G r a p h s
• C o m p l e t e Bipartite G r a p h s Km,n

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Complete Graphs

• Definition:
− For a n y nN, a complete graph o n n vertices,
Kn, is a s i m p l e g r a p h wi t h n n o d e s in
w h i c h e v e r y n o d e is adjacent to e v e r y
o t h e r n o d e : u,vV: uv{u,v}E.

K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6
n1
n(n 1)
Note that K n
has
i1
i
2
edges.
∑
Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
Cycles
• Definition:
− For a n y n3, a cycle o n n vertices, Cn, is a
s i m p l e g r a p h w h e r e V={v1,v2,… ,v n } a n d
E={{v1 ,v2 },{v2 ,v3 },…,{vn1 ,vn },{vn ,v1 }}.

C3 C4 C8
C5 C6
C7

How many edges

Discrete areSp rthere
Math ematics, in g in Cn?
2009
W heels

• Definition:
− For a n y n3, a wheel W n , is a s i m p l e g r a p h
o b t ai n ed b y taking t h e c y c l e Cn a n d a d d i n g o n e
extra vertex v h u b a n d n extra e d g e s {{v h u b ,v 1 },
{v h u b ,v 2 },…,{v h u b ,v n }}.

W3 W4 W5 W6 W7 W8

How many edges are there in Wn?

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
n-Cubes (hypercubes)
• Definition:
− A g r a p h that h a s vertices r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e
2n bit strings o f l e n g t h n
− For a n y nN, t h e hypercube Q n is a s i m p l e
g r a p h co n si st i n g o f t w o c o p i e s o f Q n-1
c o n n e c t e d t o g e t h e r at c o r r e s p o n d i n g
nodes. Q0 h a s
1 node.

Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Number of vertices: 2n. Number of edges:Exercise to try!
Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
n-Cubes (hypercubes)
• Definition:
For a n y nN, t h e h y p e r c u b e Q n can b e
d e f i n e d recu rsi v el y a s follows:
• Q 0 =({v 0 },) ( o n e n o d e a n d n o e d g e s )
• For a n y nN, if Qn=(V,E), w h e r e V={v1,…,va}
E={e
a n d 1 ,…,eb }, th e n Q {v1 ´,…,v
E{en+1
=(V 1 ´,…,e {{v1 ,v1 ´},{v ´}, 2 ´},
2 ,v
a

´}a ,vab´}}) w h…,

{v e r e1 v ´,…,v
a ´ are n e w vertices,
w j k,v } t h e in e ´={v
a nhde r e if ie ={v j k
´,v ´}.

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Bipartite Graphs
• Definition:
− A s i m p l e g r a p h G is called bipartite if its
vertex s e t V can b e partitioned into t w o
disjoint s e t s V1 a n d V2 s u c h that e v e r y
e d g e in t h e g r a p h c o n n e c t s a vertex in V1
a n d a vertex in V2 ( s o that n o e d g e in G
c o n n e c t s either t w o vertices in V1 or t w o
vertices in V 2 )

V1 V2
a bipartite

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Complete Bipartite Graphs

• Definition:
Let m, n b e p o si t i v e integers. T h e complete
bipartite graph Km,n is t h e g r a p h w h o s e
vertices can b e partitioned V = V1 ∪ V2
s u c h that
1. |V1| = m
2. |V2| = n
3. For all x ∈ V1 a n d for all y ∈ V2 , t h e r e is
an e d g e b e t w e e n x a n d y
4. N o e d g e h a s b o t h its e n d p o i n t s in V1 or
b o t h its e n d p o i n t s in V2

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Complete Bipartite Graphs
(cont.)

V1 V2

K2,3
V1

V2

K3,4

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Su b graph s
• Definition:
− A s u b g r a p h o f a g r a p h G=(V,E) is
a graph
H=(W,F) w h e r e WV a n d FE.

G H

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Graph Unions
• Definition:
− T h e union G1G2 o f t w o s i m p l e g r a p h s
G1=(V1, E 1 ) a n d G2 =(V2 ,E2 ) is t h e s i m p l e
g r a p h (V 1 V 2 , E1E2).

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Graph Representations &
Isomorphism
• Gr a ph representations:
− A d j a c e n c y lists.
− A d j a c e n c y matrices.
− In ci d en ce matrices.
• Gr a ph i s o m o r p h i s m :
− Tw o g r a p h s are i s o m o r p h i c iff t h e y are
identical e x c e p t for their n o d e n a m e s .

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Adjacency Lists
• A table wi t h 1 r o w p e r vertex, listing its
adjacent vertices.
• A w a y to r e p r e s e n t a g r a p h w/ n o multiple
edges

a b a. b, c
Vertex
b. a, c, e, f
c d Adjacent
c.a, b, Vertices
f d
e
f e. b
f. c, b

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Directed Adjacency Lists
• 1 r o w p e r n o d e , listing t h e terminal
n o d e s o f e a c h e d g e incident f r o m that
node.

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Adjacency Matrices
• Matrix A=[aij], w h e r e aij is 1 if {vi , v j } is an
e d g e o f G, 0 o t h e r w i s e .

• Simple graph
represent ation
Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
Adjacency Matrices
• Matrix M=[m ij ], w h e r e
− mij = 1w h e n e d g e ej is incident wi t h vi,
− mij = 0o t h e r w i s e .
• A w a y of represent graphs
− can b e u s e d to r e p r e s e n t multiple
e d g e s and loops

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
 Graph Isomorphism

• Definition:
S i m p l e g r a p h s G1=(V1, E 1 ) a n d G2=(V2, E 2 ) are
isomorphic iff  a bijection f:V1V2 s u c h that 
a,bV1, a a n d b are adjacent in G1 iff f(a) a n d f(b)
are adjacent in G2.

• f is t h e “renaming” function that m a k e s t h e

t w o g r a p h s identical.
• Definition can e a si l y b e e x t e n d e d to ot h e r
t ype s of graphs.
Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
Graph Invariants under Isomorphism

• Gr a ph Invariant
−a property preserved by isomorphism of
graphs
− Necessary b u t not sufficient conditions for
G1=(V1, E 1 ) to b e i s o m o r p h i c to G2=(V2, E 2 ):
• |V1|=|V2|, |E1|=|E2|.
• T h e n u m b e r o f v er tices w i t h d e g r e e n is t h e
s a m e in b o t h g r a p h s .
• For e v e r y p r o p e r s u b g r a p h g o f o n e g r a p h ,
t h e r e is a p r o p e r s u b g r a p h o f t h e o th e r
g r a p h that is i s o m o r p h i c to g.

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
 Isomorphism Example
• If i s o m o r ph i c , label t h e 2nd g r a p h to
s h o w t h e i s o m o r p h i s m , e l s e identify
difference.
b d
a b a
d c
e
e c f
f

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Are These Isomorphic?
• If i s o m or ph i c , label t h e 2nd g r a p h to
s h o w t h e i s o m o r p h i s m , e l s e identify
difference.

a * Same # of vertices
b
* Same # of edges

d * Different # of verts of
degree 2! (1 vs 3)
c e

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
 Connectedness

• Definition:
A path of length n f r o m u to v in G is
a s e q u e n c e o f n e d g e s e1, e2, … , en s u c h that e1 is
a s s o c i a t e d wi t h {x0 , x1 }, e2 is a s s o c i a t e d wi t h {x1 ,
x2 }, a n d s o on, wi t h en a s s o c i a t e d wi t h {xn-1 ,xn },
w h e r e x0=u a n d xn=v;

• T h e p a t h is circuit if it b e g i n s a n d e n d s at t h e
s a m e vertex, that is u=v, a n d h a s l e n g t h
great er than zero.
• A p a t h or circuit is simple if it d o e s not
contain t h e s a m eDiscrete
e dMath
g eematics,
m oSprr ineg than once.
2009
 Connectedness

• Definition:
− An u n d i r e c t e d g r a p h is connected iff t h e r e is a
p a t h b e t w e e n e v e r y pair o f distinct vertices
in t h e g r a p h .

• Theorem:
− T h e r e is a simple p a t h b e t w e e n a n y pair o f
vertices in a c o n n e c t e d u n d i r e c t e d g r a p h .

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Directed Connectedness
• Definition:
− A d i r e c t e d g r a p h is strongly connected iff
t h e r e is a d i r e c t e d p a t h f r o m a to b for a n y
t w o vertices a a n d b.
− It is weakly connected iff t h e u n d e r l y i n g
undirected g r a p h (i.e., wi t h e d g e directions
r e m o v e d ) is c o n n e c t e d .

• N o t e strongly i m p l i e s weakly bu t not vice-

versa.

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Paths & Isomorphism
• N o t e that c o n n e c t e d n e s s , a n d t h e
e x i s t e n c e o f a circuit or s i m p l e circuit o f
l e n g t h k are g r a p h invariants wi t h
r e s p e c t to i s o m o r p h i s m .

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
 Euler & Hamilton Paths
• Definition:
− An Euler circuit in a g r a p h G is a s i m p l e
circuit containing e v e r y e d g e o f G.
− An Euler path in G is a s i m p l e p a t h containing
e v e r y e d g e o f G.
• Examples: a b a b

d c c d e
a, e, c, d, e, b, a a, c, d, e, b, d, a, b
Euler circuit Euler path
Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
Euler & Hamilton Paths (cont.)
• Definition:
− A Hamilton circuit is a s i m p l e circuit that
t r a v e r s e s e a c h v er tex in G ex actly o n ce.
− A Hamilton path is a s i m p l e p a t h that t r a v e r s e s
e a c h v er tex in G ex actly o n ce.
• Examples:
a b a b

e c

d c
d
a, b, c, d, e, a a, b, c, d
Hamilton circuit Hamilton path

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
 Trees
• Definition:
− A tree is a c o n n e c t e d u n d i r e c t e d g r a p h w i t h n o
s i m p l e circuits.
• Since a tree cannot h a v e a circuit, a tree cannot
contain mu ltip le e d g e s or l o o p s .
• Therefore, a n y tree m u s t b e a simple graph.

• Theorem:
− A n u n d i r e c t e d g r a p h is a tree if a n d o n l y if t h e r e is
a
unique simple path b e t w e e n a n y t w o o f its vertices.
• In general, w e u s e t r e e s to r e p r e s e n t hierarchical
structures. Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
Trees
Example: Ar e t h e f ol l owi ng g r a p h s
trees?

No. Yes
.

Yes No.
.
Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
Root & Rooted
tree
• We often d e s i g n a t e a particular vertex o f
a tree a s t h e root. Since t h e r e is a u n i q u e
p a t h f r o m t h e root to e a c h vertex o f t h e
g r a p h , w e direct e a c h e d g e a w a y f r o m
t h e root.

• Definition:
A rooted tree is a tree in w h i c h o n e vertex h a s
b e e n d e s i g n a t e d a s t h e root a n d e v e r y e d g e
is d i r e c t e d a w a y f r o m t h e root

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Tree Terminology
• Definition:
− If v is a vertex in a r o o t e d tree o t h e r than t h e
root, t h e parent o f v is t h e u n i q u e vertex u
s u c h that t h e r e is a d i r e c t e d e d g e f r o m u to
v.
− W h e n u is t h e parent o f v, v is called t h e
child o f u.
− Vertices wi t h t h e s a m e parent are called
siblings.
− T h e ancestors o f a vertex o t h e r than t h e root
are t h e vertices in t h e p a t h f r o m t h e root to
this vertex, eDiscrete
x c l uMathdematics,
i n g tSphr ineg vertex itself a n d
2009
including t h e root.
 Tree Terminology (cont.)
• Definition:
− T h e descendants o f a vertex v are t h o s e vertices
that h a v e v a s an ancestor.
− A vertex o f a tree is called a leaf if it h a s n o
children.
− Vertices that h a v e children are
called internal vertices.
− If a is a vertex in a tree, t h e n t h e subtree
wi t h a a s its root is t h e s u b g r a p h o f t h e tree
co n si st i n g o f a a n d its d e s c e n d a n t s a n d all
e d g e s incident to t h e s e d e s c e n d a n t s .
Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
Tree Terminology
• Definition:
− T h e level o f a vertex v in a r o o t e d tree is
the length of the unique path from the
root to this vertex.
− T h e level o f t h e root is d e f i n e d to b e
zero.
− T h e height o f a r o o t e d tree is t h e
m a x i m u m o f t h e l e v e l s o f vertices.

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Trees
Example 1: Family tree
James

Christine Bob

Frank Joyce Petra

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
Trees (cont.)
Example 2: File
system

usr bin temp

bin spool ls

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
 Trees (cont.)
Example 3: Arithmetic
expressions


+ -

y z x y
• This tree r e p r e s e n t s t h e e x p r e s s i o n ( y +
z)(x - y).
Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
m-ary tree
• Definition:
− A r o o t e d tree is called an m-ary tree if e v e r y
internal vertex h a s n o m o r e than m children.
− T h e tree is called a full m-ary tree if e v e r y
internal vertex h a s exactly m children.
− An m-ary tree wi t h m = 2 is called a binary
tree.

• Theorem:
− A tree wi t h n vertices h a s (n – 1) e d g e s .
− A full m-ary tree wi t h i internal vertices
contains n = Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
m·i + 1 vertices.
Ordered Rooted Tree
• Definition:
− An ordered rooted tree is a r o o t e d tree
w h e r e t h e children o f e a c h internal vertex
are o r d e r e d .

• For e x a m p l e , in an o r d e r e d binary tree (just

called binary tree), if an internal vertex h a s
t w o children,
− t h e first child is called t h e left child
a n d t h e s e c o n d is called t h e right
child.
− t h e tree r o o t e d at t h e left child is called
t h e left su b t r ee, a n d at t h e right child, t h e
right s u b t r e e
Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
• O r d e r e d r o o t e d2009
t r e e s can b e d e f i n e d
 Ordered Rooted Tree (binary tree)
Left child of the a
Vertex a Right child of
the Vertex a
Left subtree of b c
the Vertex b

d e f g

h i j Right subtree of
the Vertex b
k l
Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
Tree Traversal
• P r o c e d u r e s for syst e m a t i c al l y visiting
e v e r y vertex o f an o r d e r e d r o o t e d
tree are called traversal algorithms.

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009
 Preorder traversal
step 1
• Definition: r Visit r
Let T b e an o r d e r e d
r o o t e d tree w i t h root r.
If T c o n s i s t s o n l y o f r, t h e n
r is t h e preorder traversal o f
T. Oth erwise, s u p p o s e
that T1 , T2 , … , T n are t h e
s u b t r e e s at r f r o m left to
right in T. T h e preorder T1 T2 ... Tn
traversal b e g i n s b y visiting
r. It c o n tin u e s b y Step 2 step 3 Step n+1
traversing T 1 in p r e o r d e r, Visit T1 in Visit T2 in Visit Tn in
t h e n T 2 in p r eo r d er, a n d s o preorder preorder preorder
on, until T n is t r a v e r s e d in
p reo rder. Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
 Inorder traversal
step 2
• Definition: r Visit r
Let T b e an o r d e r e d
r o o t e d tree w i t h root r.
If T c o n s i s t s o n l y o f r, t h e n
r is t h e inorder traversal o f
T. Oth erwise, s u p p o s e
that T1 , T2 , … , T n are t h e
s u b t r e e s at r f r o m left to
right. T h e inorder traversal T1 T2 ... Tn
b e g i n s b y traversing
visiting T 1 in inorder, t h e n Step 1 step 3 Step n+1
visiting r. It c o n t i n u e s b y Visit T1 in Visit T2 in Visit Tn in
traversing T 2 in inorder, inorder inorder inorder
t h e n T 3 in inorder, … , a n d
finally T n in inorder
Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
 Postorder traversal
step n+1
• Definition: r Visit r
Let T b e an o r d e r e d
r o o t e d tree w i t h root r.
If T c o n s i s t s o n l y o f r, t h e n
r is t h e postorder traversal o f
T. Oth erwise, s u p p o s e that
T1 , T2 ,
… , T n are t h e s u b t r e e s at r
f r o m left to right. T h e T1 T2 ... Tn
postorder traversal b e g i n s b y
traversing T 1 in p o s t o r d e r, Step 1 step 2 Step n
t h e n T 2 in p o s t o r d e r, … , Visit T1 in Visit T2 in Visit Tn in
postorder postorder postorder
t h e n T n in p o s t o r d e r, a n d
e n d s b y visiting r.
Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g
2009
 Traversal Example
a

b c d

g
• Preorder : a, b, e, j, k, n,
e
f o, p, f, c, d, g, l, m, h, I
h i
• Inorder : j, e, n, k, o, p,
k l
j m b, f, a, c, l, g, m, d, h, i
• Postorder : j, n, o, p, k, e,
n o p f, b, c, l, m, g, h, i, d, a

Discrete Math ematics, Sp r in g

2009