PPY21D04T

SENSORS
Class: I M.Sc. Physics Tutor:
Unit -2

Sem: IInd Semester

Pressure Sensors
Dr. V. J. Surya
Duration: January -May 2022 Research Assistant Professor
Dept of Phys and Nanotechnology
SRMIST, KTR
 Unit -2
PHYSICAL SENSORS
Physical Sensors - Introduction
• The nature of physical phenomena includes mechanical, thermal,
electrical, magnetic, atomic and nuclear, each having the properties of
bodies or physical systems.
• Based on these natural properties, some physical effects become part
of the fundamentals of physical sensors for measuring physical
quantities and converting them into signals which can be read by an
observer or an instrument.
• For example, a thermocouple converts temperature to an output
voltage which can be read by a voltmeter.
• Taking into account that the output signal is definitely determined by
the input signal, and basing our criteria on the differences of
measuring objects, physical sensors can be classified as pressure
sensors, displacement sensors, speed sensors, acceleration sensors,
flow sensors and temperature sensors.
• Whereas another criterion based on different physical effects is also
significant. In this case, there are resistance sensors, inductive
sensors, capacitive sensors, piezoelectric sensors, electromagnetic
sensors, photoelectric sensors, and thermoelectric sensors.
• It is a well-known fact that customers of sensors will choose a sensor
in connection with the physical nature of information to be obtained
about a phenomenon or a physical system
• Temperature sensors
• Sensors for aerospace and defense
• Accelerometer
• Pressure sensor,
• Strain sensors,
• Flow rate sensors,
• Speed sensors,
• Optical sensors,
• Mechanical sensors,
• Anisotropic magneto-resistive (AMR) sensors,
• Giant and colossal magneto resistors,
• Magnetic tunneling junctions
Pressure sensor
• A pressure sensor is a device that senses pressure and converts it into an electric
signal where the amount depends upon the pressure applied.
• Since they convert pressure into an electrical signal, they are also termed as
pressure transducers.
• Pressure transducers have a sensing element of constant area and respond to force
applied to this area by fluid pressure.
• The force applied will deflect the diaphragm inside the pressure transducer. The
deflection of the internal diaphragm is measured and converted into an electrical
output.
• This allows the pressure to be monitored by microprocessors, programmable
controllers and computers along with similar electronic instruments.
• Most Pressure transducers are designed to produce linear output with applied
pressure
Types of Pressure Measurements
Pressure measurement can either be relative to a reference value or on an absolute scale.
1. Absolute Pressure Measurement: Pressure measured relative to perfect vacuum is termed
as absolute pressure. Perfect vacuum is a condition where there is no matter present in the
atmosphere and hence, nil air pressure exists in that region. Absolute pressure sensors have
limited usage because it is impossible to attain a state of perfect vacuum.

2. Differential Pressure Measurement: In differential pressure measurement, pressures of

two distinct positions are compared. For example, pressure difference calculated by measuring
it at different floors of a tall building will give us differential pressure. Differential pressure
measurements, typically taken in pound per square inch differential (psid), are applied when
high amount of pressure is to be measured.

3. Gauge Pressure Measurement: It can be defined as a subtype of differential pressure

measurement where we compare pressure at any point to the current atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure measurement is used in applications like tire pressure or blood pressure
measurement. There is no consistency in gauge pressure measurements because atmospheric
pressure does vary with altitude and hence its applications are limited to non-critical
measurements.
 Types of Pressure Sensors
1. Strain Gauge Type:
• These sensors are similar to a wheat stone
bridge in their working.
• In the case of a strain gauge, one arm of the
wheat stone bridge is connected to a
diaphragm.
• The diaphragm compresses and expands due to
the pressure applied. This variation in the
diaphragm causes the output in the bridge to
vary.
• A voltage would be generated proportional to
every deviation from the normal balanced
condition, so every single compression or
expansion movement of the diaphragm will Circuit Diagram of Quarter-
produce an output indicating a change in bridge Strain Gauge Pressure
Sensor
pressure conditions.
• Since resistance change is the main cause for
potential difference, these sensors are also
termed as piezo-resistive type of pressure
sensors.
Capacitive Pressure Sensor:

• A capacitor has two metal plates and a dielectric

sandwiched between them.
• In capacitive pressure sensor, one of these metal
plates is permitted to move in and out so that the
capacitance between them changes due to
varying distance between the plates.
• The movable plate is connected to a diaphragm
which senses the pressure and then expands or
compresses accordingly.
• The movement of the diaphragm would affect
the attached metal plate’s position and
capacitance would vary.
• These sensors, though much ineffective at high
temperatures, are widely used at ambient
temperature range due to their linear output. Diagram Showing Internal Structure of Capacitive
Pressure Sensor
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor:

• Piezoelectric crystals develop a potential

difference (i.e. voltage is induced across the
surfaces) whenever they are subjected to any
mechanical pressure.
• These sensors have the crystal mounted on a
dielectric base so that there is no current
leakage.
• Attached to the crystal is a horizontal shaft to
which a diaphragm is connected.
• Whenever the diaphragm senses pressure, it
pushes the shaft down which pressurizes the
crystal and voltage is produced.
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor
Pressure sensors
• pressure sensors associated with miniaturized solenoid valves monitor can control the internal
cabin pressure in aircraft, thereby safeguarding the air pressure and oxygen levels required for
breathing in pressurized cabins up to altitudes of 15 km.
• The differential pressure between the internal cabin pressure and the outside atmospheric pressure
is adjusted to the respective flying altitude to avoid subjecting the structure to unnecessary
stresses.
• Should the cabin pressure fall below a critical value, the pressure sensors also activate the
emergency oxygen supply.
• Piezoresistive silicon pressure sensors offer measurement ranges of up to 5 bar absolute pressure.
Need for Pressure Sensors

A few prominent areas where the use of pressure sensors is inevitable are:

Touch Screen Devices:

1. The computer devices and smart phones that have touch screen displays come with pressure sensors.
2. Whenever slight pressure is applied on the touch screen through a finger or the stylus, the sensor
determines where it has been applied and accordingly generates an electric signal that informs to the
processor.
3. Usually, these sensors are located at the corners of the screen.
4. So when the pressure is applied, usually two or more such sensors act to give precise location
information of the location.
Automotive Industry:
In automotive industry, pressure sensors form an integral part of the engine and its safety.

• In the engine, these sensors monitor the oil and coolant pressure and regulate the power that the
engine should deliver to achieve suitable speeds whenever accelerator is pressed or the brakes are
applied to the car.
• For the purpose of safety, pressure sensors constitute an important part of anti-lock braking system
(ABS).
• This system adapts to the road terrain and makes sure that in case of braking at high speeds, the
tires don’t lock and the vehicle doesn’t skid.
• Pressure sensors in the ABS detail the processor with the conditions of the road as well as the
speed with which the vehicle is moving.
• Air bag systems also use pressure sensors so that the bags get activated to ensure the safety of the
passengers whenever high amount of pressure is experienced by the vehicle.
3. Bio Medical Instrumentation:
In instruments like digital blood pressure monitors and ventilators, pressure sensors are needed
to optimize them according to patient’s health and his requirements.

4. Industrial Uses:
• Pressure sensors are used to monitor gases and their partial pressures in industrial units so
that the large chemical reactions take place in precisely controlled environmental conditions.
• In oil industry, sensors detail with the depth that the oil rig has reached while exploring.
5. Aviation:
• In the airplanes, these sensors are needed to maintain a balance between the atmospheric pressure and
the control systems of the airplanes.
• This not only protects the circuitry and various internal components of the airplane but also gives exact
data to the system about the external environment.
• Also, particular levels of air pressure need to be maintained in the cockpit and the passengers lobby to
provide nominal ground like breathing conditions.

6. Marine Industry:
• For ships and submarines, pressure sensors are needed to estimate the depth at which they are
operating and for detailing the marine conditions so that the electronic systems can remain safe.
• Oxygen requirements of under water projects are also regulated by the pressure sensors.
Aviation
• Many aircraft systems require pressure sensors as the control elements such as: in engines (oil
pressure, compressor pressure, electronic engine control); fuel (pump pressure, fuel regulation);
hydraulics (braking system, load control) and environmental applications (air conditioning,
pressurization).

• Future aircraft systems will place increased demands on weight, size, cost, reliability and signal
processing of pressure sensors
MEMS pressure sensors were developed in the 1970's. Today, many companies fabricate and sell
bulk-micromachined pressure sensors
• The pressure sensor and MEMS sensing element are built to withstand temperatures as low as -
40°C and as high as 150°C, making them ideal candidates for the Aerospace industry.

• The sensors measure pressure via direct media pressure sensing to the backside of the die.

• Direct media pressure sensing translates into excellent system design flexibility leading to lower
cost and ease of manufacture.
Accelerometer
• Accelerometers are integrated built-in module devices that measure acceleration, which is the rate
of change of the velocity of an object.

• They sense either static or dynamic forces of acceleration. Static forces include gravity, while
dynamic forces can include vibrations and movement.

• They measure in meters per second squared (m/s2) or in G-forces (g). A single G-force for us here
on planet Earth is equivalent to 9.8 m/s2, but this does vary slightly with elevation (and will be a
different value on different planets due to variations in gravitational pull).
 How do Accelerometer Sensors work
• An accelerometer can measure acceleration on up to
three axis units.
• These acceleration sensors usually contain internal
capacitive plates, some are fixed while others are
attached to very small springs.
• These internally move as acceleration forces are
happening on the sensor.
• When these plates move, the capacitance changes
between them and from these changes, the acceleration
can be determined.
Another type of accelerometers, is a Piezoelectric
Accelerometer.
• These sensors contain minuscule crystal structures that
output electrical charge if they ever fall under a
mechanical stress, in this instance the stress would be Axes of measurement for a
acceleration. triple axis accelerometer
Types
In industrial applications, the most commonly used components to convert the mechanical
action into its corresponding electrical output signal are piezoelectric, piezoresistive and
capacitive in nature.

• Piezoelectric devices are more preferred in cases where it is to be used in very high
temperatures, easy mounting and also high frequency rang e up to 100 kilohertz.
Piezoresistive devices are used in sudden and extreme vibrating applications.

• Capacitive accelerometers are preferred in applications such as a silicon-micro machined

sensor material and can operate in frequencies up to 1 kilohertz. All these devices are
known to have very high stability and linearity.

• Nowadays, a new type of accelerometer called the

Micro Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS) Accelerometer is being used as it is
simple, reliable and highly cost effective. It consists of a cantilever beam along with a
seismic mass which deflects due to an applied acceleration. This deflection is measured
using analog or digital techniques and will be a measure of the acceleration applied.
Piezo Accelerometer
Applications of Accelerometer sensor are as follows:

• For inertial navigation systems, highly sensitive accelerometers are used.

• To detect and monitor vibrations in rotating machinery.
• To display images in an upright position on screens of digital cameras.
• For flight stabilization in drones.
• Accelerometers are used to sense orientation, coordinate acceleration, vibration, shock.
• Used to detect the position of the device in laptops and mobiles.
• High-frequency recording of biaxial and triaxial acceleration in biological applications for
discrimination of behavioral patterns of animals.
• Machinery health monitoring.
• To detect faults in rotator machines.
• These are also used for building and structural monitoring to measure the motion and
vibration of the structure when exposed to dynamic loads.
• To measure the depth of CPR chest compressions.
• Navigation systems make use of accelerometer sensors for knowing the direction.
• Remote sensing devices also use accelerometers to monitor active volcanoes.
Accelerometer sensors in Aerospace
• It is used mainly on Navigation or Guidance Systems called Inertial Navigation System (INS), or
Inertial Reference System (IRS), or Inertial Reference Unit (IRU) or Air Data Inertial Reference
Unit (ADIRU).
• These systems use Accelerometers Gyroscopes and electronic circuitry to provide accurate
Guidance, Navigation, Position calculation, Speed measurement and Altitude determination,
factors absolutely necessary for the auto pilot operation on sea and air vehicles.
• On airplanes the Flight Data Recorder use Accelerometers to measure and record acceleration
forces on the three axis of the vehicle, and on cars the accelerometers are used to deploy the air
bags at the right time
 Operation of an accelerometer using the capacitance effect, which is part of an Inertial
Navigation System or Inertial Reference Unit (IRS) used on passenger airplanes.
• Looking at the schematic diagram above, we can see
the proof mass in orange colour placed between the
magnets. Around the proof mass there is a torquer coil.
The suspension metal blade of the proof mass in
yellow colour, comprise together with two plates
above and below it, two capacitors of the same value
when the proof mass is null.
• Acceleration along the input axis moves the proof
mass. Capacitive pickoff converts the position change
into an electrical error signal to the servo amplifier.
The servo amplifier nulls out the error signal by
returning the proof mass to the zero-position using the
torquer coil. The current in the torque coil needed to
null the error signal is the analog output signal
representing acceleration. The analog output signal is
integrated once to give velocity and integrated a
second time to give distance.

Reference : Boeing Aircraft Maintenance Manuals

Speed sensors
Position/speed sensors provide information to the engine control module (ECM) about the position
of a component, the speed of a component, and the change in speed of a component. The following
sensors provide this data:

• Camshaft Position Sensor (also called G sensor).

• Crankshaft Position Sensor (also called NE sensor).
• Vehicle Speed Sensor.

The Camshaft Position Sensor, Crankshaft Position Sensor, and one type of vehicle speed sensor
are of the pick-up coil type sensor.
Types of speed sensors
• Based on their mode of functioning, wheel speed sensors are classified into active and passive
sensors.
• If a sensor becomes "active" only when a power supply is connected to it and if it then
generates an output signal, it is called "active".
• If a sensor works without an additional power supply, then it is called "passive“.
Active Speed Sensors
• Provide digital output direct to controller; no signal conditioning required. Accurate at low/high
speeds. May provide both speed and direction.
• Maximum RPM must be within sensor specifications
• Zero speed capable
• Air gap between sensor and target typically less than 2,4 mm [0.094 in]
• Target gear dimensions must be adequate to provide magnetic signal
• Supply voltage typically 5 V to 24 V
Passive Speed Sensors
• Passive VRS (Variable Reluctance Speed) Magnetic Speed sensors are simple, rugged devices that
do not require an external voltage source for operation.
• A permanent magnet in the sensor establishes a fixed magnetic field. The approach and passing of
a ferrous metal target near the sensor’s pole piece (sensing area) changes the flux of the magnetic
field, dynamically changing its strength. This change in magnetic field strength induces a current
into a coil winding which is attached to the output terminals. The output signal of a VRS sensor is
an ac voltage that varies in amplitude and wave frequency as the speed of the monitored device
changes, and is usually expressed in peak to peak voltage (Vp-p).
• One complete waveform (cycle) occurs as each target passes the sensor’s pole piece. If a standard
gear were used as a target, this output signal would resemble a sine wave if viewed on an
oscilloscope.
Operation principle
• This type of sensor consists of a permanent
magnet, pole piece, and coil.
• This sensor is mounted close to a toothed gear.
• As each tooth moves by the sensor, an AC voltage
pulse is induced in the coil.
• Each tooth produces a pulse.
• As the gear rotates faster there more pulses are
produced.
• The ECM determines the speed the component is
revolving based on the number of pulses.
• The number of pulses in one second is the signal
frequency.
• the generated frequency signal is directly
proportional to the number of tooth passing the
pole piece per unit time.
• The amplitude of the voltage output is
proportional to the speed of the tooth passing the
pole piece.